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Appendix 1 in Temporary expansion to shelf depths rather than an onshore-offshore trend: the shallow-water rise and demise of the modern deep-sea brittle star family Ophiacanthidae (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea)

Appendix 1. Faunal list for the assemblages studied with corresponding counts of lateral arm plates or articulated individual (art.). Note that previously published assemblages which lack ophiacanthids or for which no significant taxonomic changes or new counts are proposed have been omitted. Records marked with an asterisk (*) are not described in the present study.

Fig. 35 in Temporary expansion to shelf depths rather than an onshore-offshore trend: the shallow-water rise and demise of the modern deep-sea brittle star family Ophiacanthidae (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea)

Fig. 35. Skeletal plates and arm fragments of fossil and Recent ophiacanthid brittle stars; lateral arm plates (LAPs) in external (a) and internal (b) views. 1-3. Ophiocamax vitrea Lyman, 1878, Recent. 1. Proximal LAP. 2. Median LAP. 3. Dorsal arm plate. 4-5. Ophiocamax hystrix Lyman, 1878, Recent. 4. Proximal LAP. 5. Median LAP. 6. Ophiocamax austera Verrill, 1899, Recent; proximal LAP. 7-11. Ophiocamax dorotheae sp. nov. from the late Oxfordian (Late Jurassic) of Savigna, France. 7. GZG.INV.78763 (holotype), proximal LAP. 8. GZG.INV.78764 (paratype), median LAP. 9. GZG.INV.78765 (paratype), distal LAP. 10. GZG.INV.78766 (paratype), proximal arm fragment in ventral view. 11. GZG.INV.78767 (paratype), median arm fragment in dorsal view. One common scale bar per species except for 10 and 11.

Fig. 17 in Temporary expansion to shelf depths rather than an onshore-offshore trend: the shallow-water rise and demise of the modern deep-sea brittle star family Ophiacanthidae (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea)

Fig. 17. Fossil skeletal plates of ophiacanthid brittle stars; lateral arm plates (LAPs) in external (a) and internal (b) views. 1-2. Ophiotreta striata (Kutscher & Jagt, 2000) comb. nov. from the early Maastrichtian of Rügen, Germany. 1. GZG.INV.78588, proximal LAP. 2. GZG.INV.78589, distal LAP. 3-11. Ophiotreta dendrophyllicola sp. nov. from the middle Danian (Paleocene) of Fakse, Denmark. 3. MGUH 30236 (holotype), proximal LAP. 4. NHMM 2012 050 (paratype), median LAP. 5. NHMM 2012 051 (paratype), distal LAP. 6. NHMM 2012 052 (paratype), vertebra in distal view. 7. NHMM 2012 053 (paratype), vertebra in proximal view. 8. NHMM 2012 054 (paratype), vertebra in dorsal view. 9. NHMM 2012 055 (paratype), oral plate in adradial (a) and abradial (b) view. 10. NHMM 2012 056 (paratype), arm spine fragment. 11. NHMM 2012 057 (paratype), arm spine fragment. 12-15. Ophiotreta hedone sp. nov. from the middle Lutetian (Eocene) of Grignon, France. 12. GZG.INV.78590 (holotype), proximal LAP. 13. GZG.INV.78591 (paratype), median LAP. 14. GZG.INV.78592 (paratype), distal LAP. 15. GZG.INV.78593 (paratype), median LAP. One common scale bar per species.

Fig. 4 in Temporary expansion to shelf depths rather than an onshore-offshore trend: the shallow-water rise and demise of the modern deep-sea brittle star family Ophiacanthidae (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea)

Fig. 4. Palaeogeographic reconstruction for the Middle Triassic [after Smith et al. (1994)] with positions of currently known Triassic ophiuroid occurrences (grey areas indicate emerged land). Round dots indicate assemblages quantitatively assessed in this study (see Table 1 for details). 1. Fischerwiese, Oberscheffach, Schillingstadt. 2. Górazdze, Strzelce Opolski, Felsöörs, Sóly. 3. Alpe di Specie, Romerlo, Milieres, Recoaro. 4. Kitakami Mountains. 5. Jushui. Squares indicate previously published Triassic records. At the same positions as round dots 1-3: Bachmayer & Kollmann (1968), Broglio Loriga & Berti Cavicchi (1972), Hess (1970a), Kutscher (1987b, 2000), Radwański (2002), Salamon (2004) and ophiuroid records revised by Hess (1965b). Squares: 6. Calzada & Gutiérrez (1988). 7. Hess (1972b), Kristan-Tollmann et al. (1979). 8. Twitchett et al. (2005). 9. Zonneveld (2001). 10. Kummel & Teichert (1970). 11. Runnegar (1969). 12. Kristan-Tollmann & Gramann (1992). At the same position as round dot 5: Yang (1960), Feng (1985), Chen et al. (2004). Square 13. Ishida et al. (2011).

Fig. 20 in Temporary expansion to shelf depths rather than an onshore-offshore trend: the shallow-water rise and demise of the modern deep-sea brittle star family Ophiacanthidae (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea)

Fig. 20. Fossil lateral arm plates (LAPs) of ophiacanthid brittle stars in external (a) and internal (b) views and articulated arm fragment. 1-2. Ophiogaleus dorecki (Hess, 1962) comb. nov. from the late Pliensbachian (Early Jurassic) of Seewen, Switzerland. 1. NHMB M11214, proximal LAP. 2. NHMB M11215, distal LAP. 3-5. Ophiogaleus stans sp. nov. from the early Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) of La Pouza, France. 3. GZG.INV.78615 (holotype), proximal LAP. 4. GZG.INV.78616 (paratype), median LAP. 5. GZG.INV.78617 (paratype), distal LAP. 6-7. Ophiogaleus sp. nov. innom 2 from the Callovian (Middle Jurassic) of Jumara, India. 6. GZG.INV.78619, proximal LAP. 7. GZG.INV.78620, distal LAP. 8-10. Ophiogaleus constrictus (Hess, 1966) comb. nov. from the late Oxfordian (Late Jurassic) of Savigna, France. 8. GZG.INV.78624, proximal LAP. 9. GZG.INV.78625, distal LAP. 10. GZG.INV.78626, proximal arm fragment in ventral (a) and dorsal (b) views. One common scale bar per species except for 10.

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FIGURE 4 in A new viviparous species of asterinid (Echinodermata, Asteroidea, Asterinidae) and a new genus to accommodate the species of pantropical exiguoid sea stars

FIGURE 4. Aboral view of the gonads of C. hystera n. sp. filled with late stage juveniles just prior to leaving the parent, Juveniles about 500 µ m.

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FIGURE 3. a in A new viviparous species of asterinid (Echinodermata, Asteroidea, Asterinidae) and a new genus to accommodate the species of pantropical exiguoid sea stars

FIGURE 3. a) Colour in life Cryptasterina hystera n. sp. (at left) and Cryptasterina pentagona (at right) Photograph. M Byrne. b) Statue Bay, central Queensland. Boulder and cobble beach. Type locality for C. hystera n. sp. Photograph. S McKillup.

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FIGURE 2 in A new viviparous species of asterinid (Echinodermata, Asteroidea, Asterinidae) and a new genus to accommodate the species of pantropical exiguoid sea stars

FIGURE 2. Abactinal surface of holotype of Cryptasterina hystera sp. nov. (R = 10.2 mm) Emergent young visible in the interradius to left of image.

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Fig. 2 in Diet And Feeding In The Sea Star Astropecten Indicus (Döderlein, 1888)

Fig. 2. Examples of 16 prey types found in the stomachs of Astropecten indicus (n = 69) collected in Singapore. The white bar at the bottom right of each item = 1 mm. *Cerithium sp. was dead before ingestion.

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Fig. 5 in Diet And Feeding In The Sea Star Astropecten Indicus (Döderlein, 1888)

Fig. 5. Scatter plot showing the relationship between number of prey items ingested and Astropecten indicus (n=20) arm length after 24 h.

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Fig. 3. a in Diet And Feeding In The Sea Star Astropecten Indicus (Döderlein, 1888)

Fig. 3. a) Number of Astropecten indicus that chose with-shell and without-shell Umbonium vestiarium and Musculista senhousia prey (n=30). b) Mean number + S.E. of prey ingested at 2 h and at 24 h. Differences between light and dark bars are significant for both a) and b).

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Kinematic data and mathematical modeling of sea star locomotion

<p>It is unclear how animals with radial symmetry control locomotion without a brain. Using a combination of experiments, mathematical modeling, and robotics, we tested the extent to which this control emerges in sea stars from the local control of their hundreds of feet and their mechanical interactions with the body. We discovered that these animals (<em>Protoreaster nodosus</em>) compensate for an experimental increase in their submerged weight by recruiting more feet that synchronize in the power stroke of the locomotor cycle. Mathematical modeling replicated this response to loading in the absence of nervous communication and demonstrated how the body weight serves as a regulator of recruitment. We built a robotic sea star with an array of independently-controlled actuators that were also recruited in greater numbers under higher loads due to their collective mechanics. These findings demonstrate that an array of actuators in biological and robotic systems are capable of cooperative transport with dynamic adjustments to loading. This form of distributed control contrasts the conventional view of animal locomotion as governed by the central nervous system and offers inspiration for the design of engineered devices with arrays of actuators.</p>

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Fig. 42 in New species, redescriptions and new records of deep-sea brittle stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from the South China Sea, an integrated morphological and molecular approach

Fig. 42. Ophiactis cf. brachygenys H.L. Clark, 1911 (IDSSE EEB-SW0016 = hexamerous specimen). A. Dorsal disc. B. Ventral disc. C. Radial shields. D. Lateral disc. E. Disc spine. F. Oral frame. G. Dorsal arm. H. Ventral arm. Abbreviations: as = adoral shield; dap = dorsal arm plate; ds = disc spine; gs = genital slit; os = oral shield; rs = radial shield; tp = tentacle pore; ts = tentacle scale; vap = ventral arm plate. Scale bars: A–B = 500 µm; C–H = 200 µm.

Fig. 39 in New species, redescriptions and new records of deep-sea brittle stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from the South China Sea, an integrated morphological and molecular approach

Fig. 39. Ophiactis profundi Lütken & Mortensen, 1889, SEM (IDSSE EEB-SW0017). A. Dorsal arm plate. B–C. Lateral arm plate (external, internal). D–G. Vertebrae. D. Proximal view. E. Distal view. F. Ventral view. G. Dorsal view. Abbreviations: D = dorsal; Dist = distal; dl = dorsal lobe; mo = muscle opening; no = nerve opening; Prox = proximal; V = ventral; vl = ventral lobe. Scale bars = 300 µm.

Fig. 37 in New species, redescriptions and new records of deep-sea brittle stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from the South China Sea, an integrated morphological and molecular approach

Fig. 37. Ophiactis cf. perplexa Koehler, 1897, SEM (IDSSE EEB-SW0013). A–C. Lateral arm plate. D–H. Vertebrae. D. Proximal view. E. Distal view. F. Ventral view. G. Dorsal view. H. Lateral view. Abbreviations: asa = arm spine articulation; D = dorsal; Dist = distal; dl = dorsal lobe; mo = muscle opening; no = nerve opening; Prox = proximal; V = ventral; vl = ventral lobe. Scale bars: A, G = 200 µm; B–F, H = 300 µm.

Fig. 38 in New species, redescriptions and new records of deep-sea brittle stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from the South China Sea, an integrated morphological and molecular approach

Fig. 38. Ophiactis profundi Lütken & Mortensen, 1889 (IDSSE EEB-SW0017). A. Dorsal disc. B. Ventral disc. C. Radial shields. D. Oral frame. E. Dorsal arm. F. Ventral arm. G. Lateral arm. Abbreviations: ars = arm spine; as = adoral shield; dap = dorsal arm plate; gs = genital slit; os = oral shield; rs = radial shield; tp = tentacle pore; ts = tentacle scale; vap = ventral arm plate. Scale bars: A–B = 1 mm; C, G = 500 µm; D–F = 200 µm.

Fig. 45. Family Ophiomusaidae O in New species, redescriptions and new records of deep-sea brittle stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from the South China Sea, an integrated morphological and molecular approach

Fig. 45. Family Ophiomusaidae O'Hara et al., 2018, Maximum likelihood (ML) tree based on partial COI sequences (bootstrap support values were generated with rapid bootstrapping algorithm for 1000 replicates). Abbreviations: NZ = New Zealand; SC = Sub-Clade; SCS = South China Sea.

Fig. 46. Family Ophiotomidae Paterson, 1985 in New species, redescriptions and new records of deep-sea brittle stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from the South China Sea, an integrated morphological and molecular approach

Fig. 46. Family Ophiotomidae Paterson, 1985, Maximum likelihood (ML) tree based on partial COI sequences (bootstrap support values were generated with rapid bootstrapping algorithm for 1000 replicates). Abbreviations: IC = Inter Clade; SC = Sub-Clade; SCS = South China Sea.

Fig. 35 in New species, redescriptions and new records of deep-sea brittle stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from the South China Sea, an integrated morphological and molecular approach

Fig. 35. Ophiomoeris petalis sp. nov., SEM, paratype (IDSSE EEB-SW0031). A–C. Lateral arm plate. D–F. Vertebrae. D. Dorsolateral view. E. Ventral view. F. Lateral view. Abbreviations: Dist = distal; dl = dorsal lobe; mo = muscle opening; no = nerve opening; Prox = proximal; vl = ventral lobe; vs = volute-shaped. Scale bars: A–B, E = 200 µm; C–D, F = 100 µm.

Fig. 32 in New species, redescriptions and new records of deep-sea brittle stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) from the South China Sea, an integrated morphological and molecular approach

Fig. 32. Ophiacantha aster sp. nov., SEM, paratype (IDSSE EEB-SW0027). A–B. Lateral arm plate. C. Base of dorsal arm spine. D–H. Vertebrae. D. Proximal view. E. Distal view. F. Ventral view. G. Dorsal view. H. Lateral view (broken distal end). Abbreviations: asa = arm spine articulation; D = dorsal; Dist = distal; dl = dorsal lobe; mo = muscle opening; no = nerve opening; Prox = proximal; V = ventral; vl = ventral lobe; vs = volute-shaped. Scale bars: A–D, F–H = 500 µm; E = 300 µm.