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Confounders in epidemiological associations
<p>Dataset for the theoretical scenario presented in the paper.</p>
FIG. 3 in Morphological Change during Rapid Population Expansion Confounds Leopard Frog Identifications in the Southwestern United States
FIG. 3. Distribution of morphometric characters for Rana berlandieri (Rb), uncertain individuals, and Rana yavapaiensis (Ry). Trait values are log transformed. Different letters indicate significant differences between groups based on Tukey multiple comparison tests (ANOVA, P, 0.05). Abbreviations as in Table 2.
FIG. 4. Character states for the left and right dorsolateral folds for R in Morphological Change during Rapid Population Expansion Confounds Leopard Frog Identifications in the Southwestern United States
FIG. 4. Character states for the left and right dorsolateral folds for R. berlandieri, uncertain individuals, and R. yavapaiensis. Points along the dark line indicate individuals with the same character state for the left and right dorsolateral folds. See text for description of character states. We have applied a small amount of random noise to the points to enhance visibility.
FIG. 2 in Morphological Change during Rapid Population Expansion Confounds Leopard Frog Identifications in the Southwestern United States
FIG. 2. Map of southeastern California, USA depicting historical localities of Rana yavapaiensis (black dots), contemporary localities of Rana berlandieri (white dots), and the uncertain specimens that we examine here (red dots).
FIG. 1 in Morphological Change during Rapid Population Expansion Confounds Leopard Frog Identifications in the Southwestern United States
FIG. 1. Types of dorsolateral folds observed in Rana berlandieri and Rana yavapaiensis. These representations depict the right dorsolateral folds. The color of the medially inset, posterior folds (states 1–6) indicate similarity of the tissue to the primary dorsolateral folds (see text for more information). Black depicts posterior folds that are similar in appearance to the primary fold, and lighter shades of gray indicate skin features that are less pronounced than the raised, glandular tissue of the primary folds. State 1 is typical of R. berlandieri across its native range, and state 5 is typical of R. yavapaiensis. Modeled after Pace (1974: fig. 23).
FIG. 5 in Morphological Change during Rapid Population Expansion Confounds Leopard Frog Identifications in the Southwestern United States
FIG. 5. Majority rule consensus tree of the posterior distribution of trees from the Bayesian analysis of the concatenated alignment (two mitochrondrial and four nuclear markers, with the model of evolution for each marker specified in Table 1). Individuals with uncertain species identification are shown in bold. Numbers below nodes are estimated posterior probabilities. See Data Accessibility for tree file.
Replication package: Code Comprehension Confounders: A Study of Intelligence and Personality
<p>Replication package for:</p> <p><em>S. Wagner and M. Wyrich, "Code Comprehension Confounders: A Study of Intelligence and Personality," in IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, vol. 48, no. 12, pp. 4789-4801, 1 Dec. 2022, doi: 10.1109/TSE.2021.3127131.</em></p> <p>- The `data` folder contains dataset and R analysis script. We recommend calling `setwd()` before running the script contents, so that the dataset can be properly loaded.<br> - the `materials` folder contains the experimental code snippets and the translated task sheets to evaluate code comprehension performance.</p> <p>Please note that the raw data does not contain the complete data set as we only make the data of those participants public that explicitly agreed to it (which applies to 130 of the 135 participants).</p>
The Temporality of Technical Debt Introduction on New Code and Confounding Factors
<p>Code Technical Debt (TD) is intentionally or unintentionally created when developers introduce inefficiencies in the codebase. This can be attributed to various reasons such as heavy workload, tight delivery schedule, or developers' lack of experience. Since a software system grows mostly through the addition of new code, it is interesting to study how TD fluctuates along this process. Specifically, in this paper we investigate: (a) the temporality of code TD introduction in new code, i.e., whether the introduction of TD is stable across the lifespan of the project, or if its evolution presents spikes; and (b) the relation of TD introduction to the development team’s workload in a given period, as well as to the experience of the development team. To answer these questions, we have performed a case study on 47 open source projects from two well-known ecosystems (Apache and Eclipse) as well as additional isolated projects from GitHub (not selected from a specific ecosystem) and inspected the number of TD issues introduced in 6-month sliding temporal windows. The results of the study suggested that: (a) overall, the number of TD issues introduced through new code is a stable measure, although it presents spikes; and (b) the number of commits performed, as well as developers' experience are not strongly correlated to the number of introduced TD issues.</p>
Recurrent pain symptoms in adolescents with generalized and specific problematic Internet use: Associations analysis, confounding and mediating effects of comorbid psychosocial problems
<p>Problematic Internet use (PIU) in adolescents is a global public health issue especially exacerbated by the restrictions caused by the COVID-19 epidemic. The authors assume a negative impact of PIU not only in relation to adolescents' mental health and social behaviour but also relative to somatic components of their health, particularly concerning the occurrence of pain symptoms – recurrent headache (RH), recurrent abdominal pain (RAP), and recurrent back pain (RBP). The present study aims to identify the associations between different types of PIU (generalized PIU – PIUgen, problematic computer game use – PUgame, and problematic social media use – PUsocial), and pain symptoms (RH, RAP and RBP), and to determine the role of psychosocial factors in the emergence of these associations.</p> <p><strong>Methods: </strong>The<strong> </strong>research represents a one-stage observational study of 4,411 adolescents (53.6% girls; Mage = 14.53±1.52) in an unbiased school sample, held in three large cities of Central Siberia. The frequency and intensity of pain symptoms over the past three months were ascertained by completing a number of questionnaires. The following questionnaires were used to identify PIU and its types: the Chen Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS for PIUgen), the Game Addiction Scale for Adolescents (GASA for PUgame), and The Social Media Disorder Scale (SMDS for PUsocial). The psychological problems were assessed using The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Logistic and linear regression, as well as mediation analysis, were used.</p> <p><strong>Results:</strong> Considering both the frequency and intensity of pain, along with the presence of psychosocial problems as a confounder, a direct association of RH with PUsocial only was revealed (OR = 1.68, CI = 1.33–2.11). Using the same criteria, RAP in this sample was associated with PIUgen and PUsocial (OR = 1.99, CI = 1.51–2.62 and 2.10, CI = 1.62–2.72, respectively). RBP, according to the obtained data, was also associated with PIUgen and PUsocial both in terms of pain frequency (OR = 1.99, CI = 1.53–2.57 and OR = 2.20, CI = 1.44–3.38, respectively) and intensity. PUgame was weakly associated only with RAP and showed no significant association with RH and RBP. The mediation analysis indicated that the revealed positive associations were largely mediated by psychosocial problems comorbid for PIUgen and PUsocial (but not PUgame).</p> <p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The<strong> </strong>frequently reported association of recurrent pain symptoms with PIU in adolescents is largely mediated by comorbid psychosocial problems. The direct effect of excessive Internet use on somatic pain symptoms in adolescents is mild-to-moderate and depends on the content predominantly consumed.</p>
Effects of Exercise Intervention and Confounding Factors on Type II Diabetic Muscles
ClinicalTrials.gov study NCT03869411. IPD Sharing: NO. Countries: 1. Publications: 3.
The Effect of Intrinsic Focus on Gait Cycle and the Possible Confounding Effect of Noise in Patients With Knee Osteoarthritis
ClinicalTrials.gov study NCT06065410. IPD Sharing: NO. Countries: 1. Publications: 11.
Confounder-Corrected Quantitative MRI Biomarker of Hepatic Iron Content
ClinicalTrials.gov study NCT02025543. IPD Sharing: YES. Countries: 1. Publications: 1.
Data from: Artificial light at night confounds broad-scale habitat use by migrating birds
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Data from: Genomic data reveals potential for hybridization, introgression, and incomplete lineage sorting to confound phylogenetic relationships in an adaptive radiation of narrow-mouth frogs
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Recurrent pain symptoms in adolescents with generalized and specific problematic Internet use: Associations analysis, confounding and mediating effects of comorbid psychosocial problems
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Data from: Genetic variation of loci potentially under selection confounds species-genetic diversity correlations in a fragmented habitat
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Data from: Model misspecification confounds the estimation of rates and exaggerates their time dependency
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Methodological confounds of measuring urinary oxidative stress in wild animals
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How mitonuclear discordance and geographic variation have confounded species boundaries in a widely studied snake
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Delimitation despite discordance: Evaluating the species limits of a confounding species complex in the face of mitonuclear discordance
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Allen Brain Atlas
Allen Brain Atlas is an Allen Institute collection of brain map atlases, datasets, APIs, and analysis tools covering mouse, human, and non-human primate brain resources.
Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
ABODe is a University of Edinburgh DataShare dataset for behavior classification in group-housed mice using home-cage video, identities, bounding boxes, ground-plate positions, and annotator labels.
DANDI Archive for NWB datasets
DANDI is a BRAIN Initiative archive for publishing and sharing neurophysiology data, including electrophysiology, optophysiology, and behavioral data packaged as NWB and related standards.
International Brain Laboratory public data
The International Brain Laboratory public data releases expose standardized mouse decision-making experiments, including Neuropixels recordings, widefield calcium imaging, behavior, and session metadata accessed through the ONE API.
OpenNeuro
OpenNeuro is a free, open platform for sharing neuroimaging datasets, with public search, dataset pages, and download paths for web, S3, DataLad, and the OpenNeuro CLI.