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1,186 results for “defensiveness”
Data from: Intraspecific correlations between growth and defense vary with resource availability and differ within- and among-populations
<p>A paradigm in the plant defense literature is that defending against herbivores comes at a cost to growth, resulting in a growth-defense tradeoff. However, while there is strong evidence for growth-defense tradeoffs across species, evidence is mixed within species. Several mechanisms can account for this equivocal support within species, but teasing them apart requires examining growth-defense relationships both within and among populations, an approach seldom employed. We examined correlations between plant biomass (growth) and terpene production (defense) within and among populations of Monarda fistulosa, a perennial herb. We sampled populations from Montana and Wisconsin, regions that differ in resource availability characterized by different summer precipitation and associated abiotic conditions that influence plant productivity. We found negative, neutral, and positive growth-defense correlations, depending on the scale examined. Negative correlations occurred across populations originating from divergent regions, positive correlations occurred across populations originating from within the high-resource region, and neutral correlations were found within single populations. Collectively, these results challenge the general expectation of ubiquitous tradeoffs and support emerging views that resource availability (as it affects productivity) shapes the evolution of defense at different scales.</p>
Fig. 9 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 9. Dipsas oreas (Cope). A typically banded specimen from northern Peru (ANSP 31778). The snake is in a defensive posture (see under Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini).
Fig. 17 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 17. Defensive behavior of Sibon argus (AMNH 115927) from 600 m on the continental divide north of El Cope´, Cocle´, Panama. Top: The head is widened when mildly disturbed. Bottom: When further harassed, the snake coiled its body into a symmetrically raised spring, keeping its head hidden in the center.
Fig. 21 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 21. The final stage of defensive behavior in Dipsas nicholsi—a raised coil narrowest at the top, with the head exposed. Over a period of several days, this snake consistently coiled in the same direction (counterclockwise following the coils from above). See figure 1 for another view of the same specimen.
Fig. 5 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 5. Dipsas nicholsi (Dunn) from Madden Forest, central Panama. Left: KU 110311 in dorsal and ventral view. Right: KU 110312, above; KU 110313, below.
Fig. 1 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 1. Dipsas nicholsi (Dunn), a snaileater endemic to central Panama. Top: A specimen (not collected) photographed in 1974 in the Madden Forest Preserve, by Harry W. Greene. Bottom: Another specimen from Madden Forest, this one in a final stage of defense posturing (see figs. 20–21), photographed in 1966 by C.W. Myers.
Fig. 3 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 3. Dipsas variegata (Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril). Representative specimens in dorsal and ventral view. Left: D. v. variegata from Rancho Grande, Venezuela (FMNH 204479, 468 mm SVL). Right: D. v. trinitatis from near Asa Wright Nature Center, Trinidad (FMNH 217217, 419 mm SVL).
Fig. 13 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 13. Dipsas andiana (Boulenger) in dorsal and ventral view. Left: Specimen from Bolívar Province, Ecuador (KU 132503). Right: Specimen from Pichincha province, Ecuador (MCZ 166543).
Fig. 2 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 2. Variation in dorsal head patterns of Dipsas variegata (Duméril, Bibron, and Duméril). From top to bottom: AMNH 111075 (Bolívar, Venezuela), AMNH 137584 (Trinidad), AMNH 21275 (Guyana), AMNH 114769 (Bolívar, Venezuela). The cephalic color pattern of Dipsas variegata, which varies from indistinct to blotched, lacks the distinctive Πshaped marking that characterizes D. nicholsi and D. andiana (cf. figs. 4, 8).
Fig. 15 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 15. Dipsas andiana (Boulenger). A specimen of unknown locality (AMNH 79013) with an atypical head pattern. See text.
Fig. 19 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 19. Complex defensive behavior in Sibynomorphus mikanii. Top: The head is raised and widened, and the body is inflated, especially obvious at the widened neck (which approaches the dorsoventral hood formation of some snakes). Middle: After continued provoking, the snake has deflated the body and arranged itself into a loose asymmetrical coil or ball, with its head hidden. Bottom: An alternative coil at another time, with the head almost hidden.
Fig. 20 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 20. Initial stages in the defensive coiling of Dipsas nicholsi (KU 110313). Top: Beginning formation of an anterior coil (stage 1). Bottom: Anterior coil complete, posterior coil initiated (stage 2). See text for behavioral sequence in which stage 2 above is replaced by abrupt whipping motions while retaining the forward coil. See figure 21 for stage 3, in which the snake has gathered itself into a single coil.
Fig. 16 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 16. Head widening (triangulation)—the temporary acquisition of triangular head shape by spreading the jaw articulations—a common defensive trait among the Dipsadini and some other snakes. This behavior can also be seen in figures 9 and 17–19. Top: Dipsas viguieri from lowland Madden Forest, central Panama (KU 110317). Bottom: Dipsas temporalis from cloud forest on ridge between Río Jaqué and Río Imamadó, 800– 890 m, Darién, Panama (specimen one of KU 110294–110297).
Fig. 12 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 12. Comparison of head shapes and color patterns in Dipsas andiana and Dipsas oreas at equivalent magnifications. Top: D. andiana (KU 132503, 622 mm total length). Bottom: D. oreas (KU 142803, 629 mm total length). Dipsas andiana has a stereotypical Πshaped pattern on the dorsal surface and is relatively unmarked otherwise, whereas D. oreas has irregularly and heavily pigmented dorsal and lateral surfaces of the head. Dipsas oreas also has angular canthal and supratemporal regions and a relatively longer postorbital region than does D. andiana.
Fig. 18 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 18. Defensive behavior of Sibon nebulatus from the Río, Jaque´, 1.5 km above Río Imamado´, 50 m, Darién, Panama (KU 112474). Top: An initial stage with posteriorly widened head. Middle: Passive coil with widened head exposed. Bottom: An alternative coil with head (still widened) concealed.
Fig. 8 in Systematics of Snakes Referred to Dipsas variegata in Panama and Western South America, with Revalidation of Two Species and Notes on Defensive Behaviors in the Dipsadini (Colubridae)
Fig. 8. Dipsas andiana (Boulenger). Closeup of head of holotype. The characteristic Πshaped pattern differentiates andiana from Dipsas oreas and hints at a possible relationship with Panamanian Dipsas nicholsi.
FIGURE 8 in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior
FIGURE 8. Plot of regressed PC coordinates against log-centroid size and histogram of maximum specimen length, coded for injured and noninjured specimens. A, Regressed PC coordinates against log-centroid size that shows no obvious pattern in injured and noninjured specimens, although many of the larger specimens are injured. B, Histogram of specimen length has an approximately normal distribution with the two largest specimens showing an injury.
FIGURE 1. Slab preserving a in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior
FIGURE 1. Slab preserving a cluster of 18 fully articulated individuals of Arctinurus boltoni (AMNH- FI-101514–101531) from the mid-Silurian (Wenlock) Rochester Shale, New York state. Stars indicate injured specimens. Scale bar = 10 cm.
FIGURE 5 in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior
FIGURE 5. Specimens of Arctinurus boltoni with injuries to the thorax (A, B) and with reconstruction that mimics an injury (C, D), under plain and UV light. Arrows point to injuries described in the text. Scale bar = 1 mm. A–B, AMNH-FI-101518. C–D, AMNH-FI-101516.
FIGURE 4 in A trilobite cluster from the Silurian Rochester Shale of New York: predation patterns and possible defensive behavior
FIGURE 4. Further specimens of Arctinurus boltoni with injuries to the pygidium, under plain and UV light. Arrows point to injuries described in the text. Scale bar = 1 mm. A–B, AMNH-FI-101529. C–D, AMNH- FI-101530. E–F, AMNH-FI-101531.
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