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FIGURE 4 in A giant foraminifer that converges to the feeding strategy of carnivorous sponges: Spiculosiphon oceana sp. nov. (Foraminifera, Astrorhizida)

FIGURE 4. Results of EDS microanalysis at (A) the external side of the spicule wall of a stalk of Spiculosiphon oceana, (B) the wall of the stalk at areas bearing debris, and (C) the calcareous test of an unidentified, non-agglutinated, calcareous foraminifer attached to the stalk of S. oceana (see also figs. 1D; 3C).

FIGURE 6 in A giant foraminifer that converges to the feeding strategy of carnivorous sponges: Spiculosiphon oceana sp. nov. (Foraminifera, Astrorhizida)

FIGURE 6. (A) View of the carnivorous sponge Asbestopluma hypogea soon after trapping a small copepod. The sponge is displaying the spiny-headed morphology, which is typical after a period of starvation in order to maximize the chances of new prey capture (Vacelet & Duport 2004). (B) View of the capitate region of the holotype and the paratype of Spiculosiphon oceana sp. nov. for a comparison with the body shape of the carnivorous sponge.

FIGURE 5 in A giant foraminifer that converges to the feeding strategy of carnivorous sponges: Spiculosiphon oceana sp. nov. (Foraminifera, Astrorhizida)

FIGURE 5. Views of Spiculosiphon sp. specimens collected from 3PP cave some 18 years ago. (A) View of whole preserved specimen, with spicule tracts projecting from the spheroid being broken and artificially coalescing. (B) Schematic drawing of a live specimen. (C) Detail of the spheroid portion of the test showing damaged and coalescing, radiating spicule tracts (D–E). Details of the test of the stalk with densely packed spicules and some attached sand grains.

FIGURE 3 in A giant foraminifer that converges to the feeding strategy of carnivorous sponges: Spiculosiphon oceana sp. nov. (Foraminifera, Astrorhizida)

FIGURE 3. SEM micrograph of stalks. (A) Tightly packed needle-like spicule fragments, with no obvious cement between them. Some debris (d) has flocculated on the spicules. Note that the silica of some of the oldest spicules started dissolving, as indicated by the occurrence of tiny cavities and pits (p) at their surface. Dissolution cavities are to be distinguished from accidental breakages (b) caused to the stalk during collection or laboratory manipulation. (B) View of the distal end of the stalk, showing that it is a closed, bulb-like structure. (C) Detail of a calcareous foraminifer (f) externally attached to the wall of one of the collected stalks (see fig. 1D). Note that a triaene (t) has been incorporated into the test and that some debris (d) has flocculated on the stalk.

FIGURE 2 in A giant foraminifer that converges to the feeding strategy of carnivorous sponges: Spiculosiphon oceana sp. nov. (Foraminifera, Astrorhizida)

FIGURE 2. (A–C) Compound microscope micrographs showing the irregular arrangement of the spicules at the surface of the central globelike region of the test. Note the presence of needle-like spicule fragments along with three-rayed and four-rayed spicules (triaenes= t). (D–G) Views of the radiating tracts built by overlapping 2 to 3 spicules, which are held together by a translucent cement (c).

FIGURE 1 in A giant foraminifer that converges to the feeding strategy of carnivorous sponges: Spiculosiphon oceana sp. nov. (Foraminifera, Astrorhizida)

FIGURE 1. (A) General view of the holotype and the paratype (from left to right, respectively) of Spiculosiphon oceana sp. nov. (B) Detail of capitate region of the holotype, showing the globelike, central structure and the radiating tracts of spicules. (C) Globelike region of the holotype, showing the irregular, loose arrangement of spicules. (D–F) Views of stalks. One of the collected stalks (D) had a calcareous foraminifer (f) attached and also some flocculated debris (d). The stalk in E shows the tightly packed spicules to be slightly twisting with respect to the stalk axis. The stalk in F shows a region in which the translucent spicule wall gets a brownish to purplish coloration. (G) Detail of the proximal end of a stalk, showing that it is a closed structure, slightly expanded into a bulb-like form.

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Microplastics alter feeding strategies of a coral reef organism

<p>Increasing marine microplastic pollution has detrimentally impacted organismal physiology and ecosystem functioning. While previous studies document negative effects of microplastics on coral reef animals, the potential responses of organisms such as Large Benthic Foraminifera (LBF) are largely unknown. Here, we document the impact of microplastics on heterotrophic feeding behavior of LBF. Specimens of <em>Amphistegina gibbosa </em>were incubated in three experimental treatments: (1) Artemia sp. nauplii only; (2) pristine microplastic particles only; (3) choice of nauplii and pristine microplastic. Feeding rates were observed 24 h after initiation of treatments. A separate experiment was conducted to compare the effect of conditioned vs. pristine microplastic. Our results indicate that A. gibbosa is able to selectively feed on Artemia, avoiding interactions with pristine microplastic. However, the presence of conditioned microplastic causes similar feeding interaction rates as with Artemia. This suggests microplastics with longer residence times may have a larger impact on facultative detritivores.</p>

Figure 21 in The axial biomechanics of Trigonosaurus pricei (Neosauropoda: Titanosauria) and the importance of the cervical-dorsal region to sauropod high-browser feeding strategy

Figure 21. Reconstruction of what the sauropod Trigonosaurus pricei looked like in life, with an elevated neck and a sigmoidal tail above the horizontal line.

Figure 20. A in The axial biomechanics of Trigonosaurus pricei (Neosauropoda: Titanosauria) and the importance of the cervical-dorsal region to sauropod high-browser feeding strategy

Figure 20. A, reconstruction of the general body plan of Trigonosaurus associated with MCT 1719-R as a paratype. B, reconstruction of the general body plan of Trigonosaurus considering only the MCT 1488-R holotype. A standard tail was used.

Figure 19. A, C, E in The axial biomechanics of Trigonosaurus pricei (Neosauropoda: Titanosauria) and the importance of the cervical-dorsal region to sauropod high-browser feeding strategy

Figure 19. A, C, E, Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, and Barosaurus, respectively, with horizontalized neck [according to Stevens and Parrish 2005a (A, C) and Lovelace, 2007 (E), in light grey]. B, D, F, Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, and Barosaurus, respectively, with a more upward-facing neck, in dark grey (according to the authors). In F, the Cv13 vertebra is a simple line art representation. No scale.

Figure 18. A, a in The axial biomechanics of Trigonosaurus pricei (Neosauropoda: Titanosauria) and the importance of the cervical-dorsal region to sauropod high-browser feeding strategy

Figure 18. A, a possible tripodal pose in Trigonosaurus feeding in high regions. Dorsal column in extension and neck in cartilaginous neutral posture (CNP) (with neck in ventral flexion and in extension, in grey). Arrows indicate movement in the dorsal and ventral direction. B, dorsal column and neck in flexion (neck in CNP and extension, in grey) in possible feeding pose (and/or consuming water) in low regions with flexed forelimbs. C, dorsal column in CNP and neck in ventral flexion in possible feeding pose (and/or consuming water) in low regions.

Figure 17 in The axial biomechanics of Trigonosaurus pricei (Neosauropoda: Titanosauria) and the importance of the cervical-dorsal region to sauropod high-browser feeding strategy

Figure 17. Reconstructions of poses in Trigonosaurus according to Salgado et al. (1997), taking as an example 5% as the cartilage thickness. A, cartilaginous neutral posture, with reconstructed limbs with forelimbs exceptionally larger than hindlimbs (like basal Macronaria). B, reconstruction with the region of the dorsal column in maximal ventral position, still with the hindlimbs relatively larger than the forelimbs (like basal Macronaria). C, reconstruction with the neural canal horizontally aligned. D, reconstruction with a strong arch of the dorsal column and with forelimbs relatively proportional to the hindlimbs (as proposed by Salgado et al. 1997: Fig. C). E, detail of the reconstruction with a strongly arched dorsal column, showing disarticulated vertebrae. Red arrows indicate the zygapophyses of the dorsal vertebrae that are disarticulated. F, more parsimonious reconstruction with more anteriorly inclined pubic peduncle. No scale.

Figure 16 in The axial biomechanics of Trigonosaurus pricei (Neosauropoda: Titanosauria) and the importance of the cervical-dorsal region to sauropod high-browser feeding strategy

Figure 16. Angular variation between maximal mediolateral positions with combinations of soft-tissue thickness in cervical, dorsal, and caudal order, respectively, as follows: A, 2.5%, 5%, 5%; B, 5%, 5%, 5%; C, 10%, 5%, 5%; D, 2.5%, 5%, 10%; E, 5%, 5%, 10%; F, 10%, 5%, 10%; G, 2.5%, 5%, 15%; H, 5%, 5%, 15%; I, 10%, 5%, 15%. J, model in cartilaginous neutral posture (5%) shows the increase in laterolateral range considering the dorsal column. K, only the neck in maximum lateral position. L, cervical and dorsal column in maximal lateral position. No scale.

Figure 15 in The axial biomechanics of Trigonosaurus pricei (Neosauropoda: Titanosauria) and the importance of the cervical-dorsal region to sauropod high-browser feeding strategy

Figure 15. Range of motion: angular variation between maximal dorsal position with combinations of intervertebral soft-tissue thickness, in cervical, dorsal, and caudal order, respectively, as follows: A, 2.5%, 5%, 5%; B, 5%, 5%, 5%; C, 10%, 5%, 5%; D, 2.5%, 5%, 10%; E, 5%, 5%, 10%; F, 10%, 5%, 10%; G, 2.5%, 5%, 15%; H, 5%, 5%, 15%; I, 10%, 5%, 15%. No scale.

Figure 14 in The axial biomechanics of Trigonosaurus pricei (Neosauropoda: Titanosauria) and the importance of the cervical-dorsal region to sauropod high-browser feeding strategy

Figure 14. Angular variation between dorsal, ventral, and lateral maxima with: A, 2,5%; B, 5%; C, 10% (maximum dorsal and ventral positions); D, 2.5; E, 5%; F, 10% (maximum lateral position) of soft-tissue thickness in the cervical region; G, 5% (maximum dorsal and ventral positions); H, lateral maximum with the soft-tissue thickness in dorsal region; I, 5%; J, 10%; K, 15% (maximaum dorsal and ventral positions); and L, 5%; M, 10%; N, 15% (maximum lateral position) of the soft-tissue thickness in the caudal region. No scale.

Figure 8 in The axial biomechanics of Trigonosaurus pricei (Neosauropoda: Titanosauria) and the importance of the cervical-dorsal region to sauropod high-browser feeding strategy

Figure 8. Simplification of the 'shape' of the vertebral column regions. A, cervical region in a 'J' shape, dorsal region in an arc shape, and caudal region in a sigmoid shape. B, cervical region in a sigmoid shape, dorsal region in an arch shape, and caudal region in a sigmoid shape. C, cervical region in a 'U' shape, dorsal region in an arc shape, and caudal region in a 'U' shape. D, cervical region in a sigmoid shape, dorsal region in a linear shape, and caudal region in a linear shape.

Figure 7 in The axial biomechanics of Trigonosaurus pricei (Neosauropoda: Titanosauria) and the importance of the cervical-dorsal region to sauropod high-browser feeding strategy

Figure 7. Simplification of evaluation model for sauropod vertebral column direction. The directions of each region can be assigned from the starting point of the vertebral sequence or from the point of change of direction (e.g. cervicodorsal region). A, the sauropod body plane angle can be measured from the ground to the head (orange). Up to 10° can be considered low elevation, between 10° and 20° medium direction, and above 20° can be considered high elevation. B, cervical region high suprahorizontal direction (between 30° and 60°). Dorsal region in medium suprahorizontal direction (between 15° and 30°). Caudal region in low subhorizontal direction (between 0° and −15°). Sacral angle at 30°. The body plane angle is at 33, 59° in high elevation. C, cervical region in low suprahorizontal direction (15°). Dorsal region in low suprahorizontal direction (between 0° and 15°). Caudal region in high subhorizontal direction (between −15° and −30°). Sacral wedge at 15°. The body plane angle is at 18, 22° in medium elevation. D, cervical region in horizontal direction (0°). Dorsal region in horizontal direction (0°). Caudal region in horizontal direction (0°). The body plane angle is at 9, 72° in low elevation. E, the direction of the trunk (dorsal region + sacrum) can also be measured by adding the sacral region from the most distant point of the sacrum (e.g. in pink, forming an angle of 25°); as a result, there is an increase in the value (in degrees) over the horizontal line.