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Figure 6 in Systematic revision of the early Miocene fossil Pseudoepicrates (Serpentes: Boidae): implications for the evolution and historical biogeography of the West Indian boid snakes (Chilabothrus)
Figure 6. Selected examples of the extant comparative material used in the study. A, midtrunk vertebra of Chilabothrus angulifer (AMNH R 77596); B, midtrunk vertebra of Chilabothrus cf C. inornatus from the Pleistocene of Cuba (AMNH 7709); C, midtrunk vertebra of 'barbouri' (previous holotype MCZ 1978); D, midtrunk vertebra of Boa constrictor (MCN.D. 344); and E, midtrunk vertebra of Epicrates cenchria (MCN PV DR 002). Anatomical views of the vertebrae are sorted in column at the lower portion of the image. Scale bar: 5 mm.
Figure 5 in Systematic revision of the early Miocene fossil Pseudoepicrates (Serpentes: Boidae): implications for the evolution and historical biogeography of the West Indian boid snakes (Chilabothrus)
Figure 5. Paratypes previously attributed to N. barbouri (= Pseudoepicrates). Letters A–D denotes the specimens. Anatomical views of the vertebrae are sorted above each image. Abbreviations are given in the relevant section.
Figure 10. A in Systematic revision of the early Miocene fossil Pseudoepicrates (Serpentes: Boidae): implications for the evolution and historical biogeography of the West Indian boid snakes (Chilabothrus)
Figure 10. A, calibrated phylogenetic hypothesis of Reynolds et al. (2013). Blue dot: the estimated age of divergence of the group [(Chilabothrus) + (Epicrates + Eunectes)] at ~30.0 Mya. Red dot: the estimate age for origin of the genus Chilabothrus at ~22 Mya. The dashed line shows the age of the site of Chilabothrus stanolseni comb. nov. ~18.5 Mya, marking the oldest record of the genus. B, schematic map of the early Miocene showing the biogeographical dispersion and diversification of the genus Chilabothrus. Red arrow: probable route of dispersion via Northern South America, which is here considered the most likely based on multiple lines of evidence, including genetic divergence, oceanic current patterns, incidence of vertebrates taxa and estimated dispersal time of initial dispersion ~22 Mya (Hedges, 1996, 2001; Reynolds et al., 2013). Green arrow: alternative route of dispersion to the West Indian Island complex from the Central America, estimate dispersal time of ~22 Mya (Hedges, 1996). Pink arrow: route of dispersion from North America, hypothesis based on Tolson (1987) due to the presence of Pseudoepicrates, considered unlikely here. Orange arrow: second dispersal event of Chilabothrus stanolseni comb. nov. to the North American Territory from the West Indies (estimated age of at least ~18.5 Mya). Blue arrow: dispersion throughout the West Indies' island complex, prefacing the diversification of the current extant species of the insular complex (estimated age since ~22 Mya to the Holocene). Hypothesis adapted from Reynolds et al. (2013). Paleomap reconstruction based on Scotese (2010).
Figure 9 in Systematic revision of the early Miocene fossil Pseudoepicrates (Serpentes: Boidae): implications for the evolution and historical biogeography of the West Indian boid snakes (Chilabothrus)
Figure 9. Comparison between the holotype of P. stanolseni MCZ 1977 and an anterior vertebra of B. constrictor MCN. D. 333. Note differences such as the neural spine orientation; the presence of epizygapophyseal process in B. constrictor; the zygosphene roof morphology; and the shallow posterodorsal notch of P. stanolseni. Abbreviations are given in the relevant section. Scale bar: 5 mm.
Figure 1 in Systematic revision of the early Miocene fossil Pseudoepicrates (Serpentes: Boidae): implications for the evolution and historical biogeography of the West Indian boid snakes (Chilabothrus)
Figure 1. Mid-precloacal vertebra of Boa constrictor (MCN.D. 344). A, showing the anatomical features and terminology adopted in the work. Abbreviations are given in the relevant section. B, quantitative proportions and measurements employed in the present work. Anatomical views of the vertebra is present below each image. Scale bar: 10 mm.
Figure 2 in Systematic revision of the early Miocene fossil Pseudoepicrates (Serpentes: Boidae): implications for the evolution and historical biogeography of the West Indian boid snakes (Chilabothrus)
Figure 2. Isolated precloacal vertebrae attributed to Pseudoepicrates stanolseni. A, anterior precloacal vertebra MCZ 1977; B, schematic drawing outline of MCZ 1977 (holotype) evidencing its morphological structures; C, mid-precloacal vertebra of MCZ 1978 'barbouri' material; D, schematic drawing outline of MCZ 1978 evidencing its morphological structures. Anatomical views of the vertebrae are sorted in each column. Scale bar: 5 mm. Abbreviations in the anatomical abbreviations' section.
Data from: The convergent evolution of snake-like forms by divergent evolutionary pathways in squamate reptiles
Convergent evolution of phenotypes is considered evidence that evolution is deterministic. Establishing if such convergent phenotypes arose through convergent evolutionary pathways is a stronger test of determinism. We studied the evolution of snake-like body shapes in six clades of lizards, each containing species ranging from short-bodied and pentadactyl to long-bodied and limbless. We tested whether body shapes that evolved in each clade were convergent, and whether clades evolved snake-like body shapes following convergent evolutionary pathways. Our analyses showed that indeed species with the same numbers of digits in each clade evolved convergent body shapes. We then compared evolutionary pathways among clades by considering patterns of evolutionary integration and shape of relationship among body parts, patterns of vertebral evolution, and models of digit evolution. We found that all clades elongated their bodies through the addition, not elongation, of vertebrae, and had similar patterns of integration. However, patterns of integration, the body parts that were related by a linear or a threshold model, and patterns of digit evolution differed among clades. These results showed that clades followed different evolutionary pathways. This suggests an important role of historical contingency as opposed to determinism in the convergent evolution of snake-like body shapes.
Figure 3. A in Phylogenetic relationships and biogeographic range evolution in cat-eyed snakes, Boiga (Serpentes: Colubridae)
Figure 3. A, BioGeoBEARS geographic range evolution of Boiga under the highest supported model scheme (biogeographic model = DIVALIKE+J, dispersal direction = unconstrained and dispersal rates = faunal similarity). Pie charts at internal nodes indicate the posterior estimate of ancestral geographic distributions and rectangles at tips indicate modern geographic distributions. B, model scheme AIC score (red bar) and corresponding null distribution of AIC scores (grey bars) for each of the five model schemes with biogeographic model = DIVALIKE+J (dispersal rate multipliers either: all equal, random or proportional to faunal similarity; dispersal direction either: constrained or unconstrained). Null AIC distributions and P-values are from permutation tests of dispersal rate multipliers; P <0.05 indicates significantly better model fit under the alternative model scheme compared to permutation set of model schemes; see Supporting Information, Figures S1–5 for results under the other biogeographic models.
Figure 2 in Phylogenetic relationships and biogeographic range evolution in cat-eyed snakes, Boiga (Serpentes: Colubridae)
Figure 2. Bayesian inference (BI) time-tree of Boiga. Horizontal bars centred at internal nodes indicate 95% highest posterior density for clade age. Circles indicate posterior probability (PP) and ultrafast bootstrap support (UFBoot) for clades that were not highly supported by BI and/or ML analyses (PP <0.95 and/or UFBoot <95); nodes without circles indicate clades that were highly supported in both BI and ML analyses (PP ≥ 0.95 and UFBoot ≥ 95). Photos: Ishan Agarwal (Boiga beddomei, B. trigonata and B. ochracea), Kin Onn Chan (Boiga melanota, B. drapiezii, B. cynodon and B. cyanea) and Perry L. Wood, Jr (Boiga multomaculata).
Ecological and biogeographic processes drive the proteome evolution of snake venom
<p class="Body"><span>The emergence of venom is an evolutionary innovation that favored the diversification and survival of snakes. The composition of snake venoms is known in detail from venom gland proteomic data. However, there is still a gap of knowledge about the forces that lead to the expression of different toxins in different proportions in the venom cocktail across space and time.</span></p> <p class="Body"><span><b>LOCATION</b></span></p> <p class="Body"><span>World.</span></p> <p class="Body"><span><b>TIME PERIOD</b></span></p> <p class="Body"><span>Modern.</span></p> <p class="Body"><span><b>MAJOR TAXA STUDIED</b></span></p> <p class="Body"><span>Elapidae and Viperidae.</span></p> <p class="Body"><span>We integrated proteomic data with phylogenetic comparative methods to understand how ecological and biogeographical processes drive the evolution of snake venom. </span><span>We observed that more productive environments favor a more complex venom, which presents a higher diversity and similarity on the toxin proportions in its composition. We found that the taxa that live in islands, where there is lower variability of resources, tended to present less complex venom dominated by few toxins. In this case, the island's isolation seems to be a relevant element for a faster fixation of specific venom compositions. </span>We show that ecological and biogeographic processes, which can act differentially over time and space, affect the gene expression of toxins in snake venoms.</p>
Figure 8 in Ontogeny of the skull of the blind snake Amerotyphlops brongersmianus (Serpentes: Typhlopidae) brings new insights on snake cranial evolution
Figure 8. Ratio between the length the bones of the gnathic complex and linear skull length plotted against postnatal ontogenetic stages of the anguimorph lizard Ophiodes intermedius, the blind snake Amerotyphlops brongersmianus and the alethinophidian snake Philodryas psammophidea. The successive postnatal ontogenetic stages were ordered according to SVL and named from 1 to 4 corresponding to hatching, juvenile, subadult and adult stages respectively.
Figure 6. A-B in Ontogeny of the skull of the blind snake Amerotyphlops brongersmianus (Serpentes: Typhlopidae) brings new insights on snake cranial evolution
Figure 6. A-B, internal (endocranial) view of the parabasisphenoid bone in Amerotyphlops brongersmianus throughout ontogeny showing the conformation of the Vidian canal: A, embryo at Stage 33; B, adult. C, endocranial view of the parabasisphenoid bone of the embryo of Liasis mackloti. D, frontal cutaway posterior to the hypophysial fenestra of embryo of A. brongersmianus at Stage 33 showing the cartilaginous nuclei of the trabeculae cranii. E-F, internal views of a sagittal cutaway of the skull of A. brongersmianus throughout ontogeny showing different endocranial apertures of the Vidian canal and presence of the lateral wing of the parabasisphenoid: E, embryo at Stage 33; F, adult. G, lateroventral view of the adult skull of A. brongersmianus showing external apertures of the Vidian canal. H-I, internal views of a sagittal cutaway of the skull of Candoia bibroni throughout ontogeny showing different endocranial apertures of the Vidian canal and the lateral wing of the parabasisphenoid: H, embryo; I, adult. J, lateroventral view of the adult skull of C. bibroni showing external apertures of the Vidian canal. Abbreviations: bo, basioccipital; cbc, cerebral carotid artery; ccf, cerebral carotid foramen; fr, frontal; lo, lateral ossification of the posterior trabecula; ot, otooccipital; p, parietal; pan, palatine nerve; par, palatine artery; pav, primary anterior opening of the Vidian canal; pbs; parabasisphenoid; po; prootic; pov, posterior opening of the Vidian canal; sav, secondary anterior opening of the Vidian canal; t, trabecula cranii; tc, trabecula communis; V, foramen for the maxillary and mandibular rami of the trigeminal nerve; V4, cid nerve; VIIp, palatine ramus of the facial nerve. Scale bars equal to 1 mm.
Figure 3 in Ontogeny of the skull of the blind snake Amerotyphlops brongersmianus (Serpentes: Typhlopidae) brings new insights on snake cranial evolution
Figure 3. Ventral view of the skull of Amerotyphlops brongersmianus throughout embryonic and postnatal ontogeny. Lower jaw as well as the maxilla, palatine and pterygoid on the left side were digitally removed: A, embryo at Stage 33; B, embryo at Stage 34; C, embryo at Stage 36; D, hatchling; E, juvenile; F, adult. Abbreviations: bo, basioccipital; cs, crista sellaris; et, egg tooth; fr, frontal; fv, fenestra vomeronasalis; hf, hypophysial fenestra; mx, maxilla; ot, otooccipital; p, parietal; pa, palatine; pbs, parabasisphenoid; pmx, premaxilla; po, prootic; pov, posterior opening of the Vidian canal; pfr, prefrontal; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; s, sulcus of the embryonic parabasisphenoid; sav, secondary anterior opening of the Vidian canal; set, scar of the egg tooth; smx, septomaxilla; ut, unossified trabecula; II, foramen for the optic nerve; V, foramen for maxillary and mandibular rami of the trigeminal nerve. Scale bars equal to 1 mm.
Figure 2 in Ontogeny of the skull of the blind snake Amerotyphlops brongersmianus (Serpentes: Typhlopidae) brings new insights on snake cranial evolution
Figure 2. Dorsal view of the skull of Amerotyphlops brongersmianus throughout embryonic and postnatal ontogeny: A, embryo at Stage 33; B, embryo at Stage 34; C, embryo at Stage 36; D, hatchling; E, juvenile; F, adult. Abbreviations: bo, basioccipital; fr, frontal; mx, maxilla; n, nasal; ot, otooccipital; p, parietal; pa, palatine; pbs; parabasisphenoid; pmx; premaxilla; po, prootic; pp, postorbital process; prf, prefrontal; q, quadrate; so, supraoccipital. Scale bars equal to 1 mm.
Figure 7 in Ontogeny of the skull of the blind snake Amerotyphlops brongersmianus (Serpentes: Typhlopidae) brings new insights on snake cranial evolution
Figure 7. Lateral and medial views of the lower jaw of Amerotyphlops brongersmianus throughout ontogeny: A, embryo at Stage 33; B, hatchling; C, adult. Abbreviations: a, angular; co, coronoid; cb, compound bone; d, dentary; gc, glenoid cavity; mf, mandibular fossa; rp, retroarticular process; sp, splenial. Scale bars equal to 1 mm.
Figure 1 in Ontogeny of the skull of the blind snake Amerotyphlops brongersmianus (Serpentes: Typhlopidae) brings new insights on snake cranial evolution
Figure 1. Lateral view of the skull of Amerotyphlops brongersmianus throughout embryonic and postnatal ontogeny: A, embryo at Stage 33; B, embryo at Stage 34; C, embryo at Stage 36; D, hatchling; E, juvenile; F, adult. Abbreviations: a, angular; bo, basioccipital; cb, compound bone; co, coronoid; d, dentary; et, egg tooth; fr, frontal; mx, maxilla; n, nasal; ot, otooccipital; p, parietal; pa, palatine; pbs, parabasisphenoid; pmx, premaxilla; po, prootic; pp, postorbital process; prf, prefrontal; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; smx, septomaxilla; so, supraoccipital; sp, splenial; II, foramen for the optic nerve; V, foramen for both rami of the trigeminal nerve. Scale bars equal to 1 mm.
Figure 4 in Ontogeny of the skull of the blind snake Amerotyphlops brongersmianus (Serpentes: Typhlopidae) brings new insights on snake cranial evolution
Figure 4. Lateral (left), anterior (centre) and ventral (right) views of the egg tooth of squamate embryos at equivalent pre-hatching stages: A, Lanthanotus borneensis; B, Amerotyphlops brongersmianus; C, Liasis mackloti; D, Naja oxiana. The premaxilla is highlighted in light grey. The ventral view is a horizontal cutaway showing the section of the egg tooth near its base. Scale bars equal to 1 mm.
Landmark data from Macrì et al. Sci. Adv 2023 "Reconstructing the origin and early evolution of the snake brain "
<p>Landmark dataset from Macrì et al. 2023 "<strong>Reconstructing the origin and early evolution of the snake brain</strong>"</p>
Data from: Body size evolution on islands: are adult size variations in tiger snakes a non-adaptive consequence of selection on birth size?
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Data from: The convergent evolution of snake-like forms by divergent evolutionary pathways in squamate reptiles
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