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FIGURE 8 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 8. Morphologies of pmx4 and mx1 in Tyrannosaurus rex. A, photo traces of distal right premaxilla and mesial right maxilla in palatal view (AMNH 5027); note differences between the classes. B, Lpm4 and Lmx1 (AMNH 5027) in mesiolabial view. C, mx1 (AMNH 5027) in mesial view; note the mesial carina visible on the lingual edge (circle). Rmx1 of FMNH PR2081 in labial (D) and (E) lingual views; note sizes of mx1 and pm4, the flattened shape of the lingual face of pm4, and the placement of the carinae (circle). F, Rpm4 and Rmx1 of BHI 3033 in mesiolabial view; note size differences, carina placement (arrows), and the slight increase in mesial curvature in mx1 (scale bars equal 1cm). G, the teeth in mesiolingual view (image reflected).

Fig. 4 in A 3D interactive method for estimating body segmental parameters in animals: Application to the turning and running performance of Tyrannosaurus rex

Fig. 4. Ostrich trunk mass set models: (A) photograph of original trunk carcass in right lateral view, suspended on a cable for CM and inertia estimation experiments; (B) point cloud of carcass landmarks from digitization; (C) B-spline solid shrinkwrapped to fit underlying carcass landmarks (carcass model); (D) photograph of skeleton after defleshing of carcass, (E) point cloud of skeletal landmarks from digitization; (F) B-spline solid shrinkwrapped to fit underlying skeletal landmarks (skeleton model); and (G) Skeleton model with B-spline solid expanded laterally to simulate added flesh (fleshed-out model). Not to scale. The right hip joint (pink and black disk; caudal) and CM (red and black disk; cranial) are shown for the models, with principal axes (arrows). A dotted curve outlines the acetabulum in the carcass and skeleton pictures.

Fig. 5. Tyrannosaurus MOR 555 in A 3D interactive method for estimating body segmental parameters in animals: Application to the turning and running performance of Tyrannosaurus rex

Fig. 5. Tyrannosaurus MOR 555 skeleton: (A) Photograph of mounted skeleton in Berkeley, California (in left lateral view); (B) Torso skeletal landmark points digitized for our study, plus digitized pelvis and leg bones from Hutchinson et al. (2005); and (C, D) additional cranial and caudal photographic views of the skeleton from A.

FIGURE 12 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 12. Morphology of d1 in Tyrannosaurus rex. A, first dentary teeth of AMNH 5027 in labial view. B, Rd1 of BHI 3033 in mesial and distal views. C, Rd1 of CM 9380 in mesial view. D, Rd1 of BHI 3033 in occlusal view. E, Ld1 of AMNH 5027 in distolabial view.

FIGURE 16 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 16. Between-taxon comparisons of CBL (A), CBW (B), CH (C), and AL (D) for the theropods examined in this study (data from Smith et al., in press). Units are mm. Error bars equal +/− 1 standard deviation.

FIGURE 1. A in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 1. A, idealized human dental arcade, in palatal view, showing mesial, distal, labial, and lingual directions (modified from Smith and Dodson, 2003). LM1, left upper first molar. B, photo traces of AMNH 5027 Lmx7–8 (bones are schematic), showing mesiodistal orientations of crown long axes (points A–D were defined by Smith et al., 2005). C, photo trace of the premaxilla of AMNH 5027 (teeth are schematic) in palatal view showing labiolingual orientations of the crown long axes. D, Saurornitholestes Sues, 1978, crown in lateral view showing crown height (CH, measured from the apex to the base of the enamel (̴between points G and B)); crown base length (CBL, measured along the mesiodistal axis of the crown at the base of the enamel, ̴between points A and B); apical length (AL, measured between points A and G); crown angle (CA, angle GAB); mesial apical (MA), mesial mid-crown (MC), and mesial basal (MB) denticle densities (measured along the length of the mesial carina); distal apical (DA), distal mid-crown (DC), and distal basal (DB) denticle densities (measured along the length of the distal carina). E, the crown in D in basal view showing CBL and crown base width (CBW, measured perpendicular to CBL). Crown in D redrawn from Currie et al., (1990). Figure concept after Smith et al. (2005).

FIGURE 11 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 11. Maxillary teeth (?5–7) of Tyrannosaurus rex (MOR 008) in apical view; note orientation with respect to lateral side of the bone (crowns are broken; view is of the cross sections of the teeth).

Fig. 3. A B in A 3D interactive method for estimating body segmental parameters in animals: Application to the turning and running performance of Tyrannosaurus rex

Fig. 3. A B-spline solid can have its boundary surface tessellated into triangles of different resolution. The more triangles are used, the better the approximation of a smooth surface can be achieved. Ostrich trunk models from Table 1 shown with increasing number of triangles: in lateral view (from A to F) and in dorsal view (from G to L). The warped appearances of the models are not errors but reflect the complex 3D surface of the dissected ostrich carcass, and the difficulty of representing this surface with simpler geometry.

FIGURE 7 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 7. Positional variation in carina placement and orientation of Tyrannosaurus rex. Right maxilla (A) and left dentary (B) in palatal view (composite photo traces of AMNH 5027). C, the mesial right maxillary dentition of LACM 23844 in labial view (arrows indicate distal carinae, which are forming the distal edges of the labial faces of the teeth by mx3). D, the mesial left dentary dentition of FMNH PR2081 in labial view (arrows indicate distal carinae).

FIGURE 15 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 15. Curvature profiles in pm1 and d1 of Tyrannosaurus rex. A, Lpm1 of BHI 3033 in mesial view. B, Ld1 of BHI 3033 in labiodistal view. C, Mesial profiles derived from A and B, scaled to the same size. Scale bars equal 1 cm.

Fig. 6 in A 3D interactive method for estimating body segmental parameters in animals: Application to the turning and running performance of Tyrannosaurus rex

Fig. 6. Original Tyrannosaurus mass set (Model 1) in right lateral (A), dorsal (B), cranial (C), caudal (D), and oblique right craniolateral (E) views. Not to scale. The odd shape of the hip region in (B) represents the 15° adbuction of the thigh segment (see Section 2), which makes the thigh seem laterally-flared in dorsal view. This is also evident in the abducted positions of the lower legs and feet in C–E. It is not yet clear precisely how theropod dinosaur hindlimb joints (especially the hip and knee) brought the feet close to the body midline (e.g., Paul, 1988; Hutchinson et al., 2005), so our model was left with its feet in an abducted position (making it easiest to edit 3D leg dimensions), which had no important effects on our results.

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Fig. 1 in Molecular phylogenetics of Mastodon and Tyrannosaurus rex

Fig. 1. Inferred evolutionary relationships of major vertebrate groups hypothesized from collagen al(I) and a2(I) protein data by using a Bayesian approach. The node (bifurcation) labels are measures of support, which indicate the proportion of trees in the posterior distribution to containing the node. Branch lengths are in expected changes per site.

FIGURE 2 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 2. Crown size (in mm) variability profiles, with respect to tooth position, for CBL (A), CBW (B), CH (C), and AL (D) of Tyrannosaurus rex. E, crown size (CBL, CBW, CH, and AL, in mm) comparisons for T. rex tooth classes. See Supplementary Data 1, www.vertpaleo.org/jvp/ JVPcontents.html, for data. Error bars = +/− 1 standard deviation.

FIGURE 10 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 10. Distal set morphology in Tyrannosaurus rex. A, Rmx5 of AMNH 5027 in mesial view. B, Rmx5 of LACM 23844 in labial view. C, Lmx5–7 of CM 9380 in lingual view. D, Rmx6 of SDSM 12047 in lingual view. E, Lmx7 of MOR 555 in labial view. F, Lmx8 of MOR 555 in mesial view. G, Lmx9 of BHI 3033 in distal view. H, Rmx10–12 of FMNH PR2081 in labial view.

FIGURE 3 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 3. Premaxillary crown morphologies in Tyrannosaurus rex. A, Lpm2 of AMNH 5027 in labial view. B, Rpm1 and Rpm3 of BHI 3033 in lingual view. Scale bar equals 5 mm.

FIGURE 9 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 9. Mesial set morphology in Tyrannosaurus rex. A, Rmx1–3 of FMNH PR2081 in labial view. B, Lmx1 of SDSM 12047 in distal view. C, Lmx3 of AMNH 5027 in mesial view. Arrows show carinae.

FIGURE 6 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 6. Denticle size comparisons and variability profiles, with respect to tooth position, for MAVG (A), DAVG (B), and DSDI (C) of Tyrannosaurus rex. See methods for units. See Supplementary Data 1, www.vertpaleo.org/jvp/JVPcontents.html, for data. Error bars equal +/− 1 standard deviation.

FIGURE 14 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 14. Distal dentary set morphology in Tyrannosaurus rex. A, Rd4–5 of SDSM 12047 in labial view (arrow indicates carina location). B, Ld6–9 of FMNH PR2081 in labial view. C, Ld7 of BMNH R5863 in mesial view. D, Ld6 of FMNH PR2081 in distal view. E, Ld10 of SDSM 12047 in mesial view. F, Rd12 of AMNH 5027 in labial view. G, Ld13 of BHI 3033 in labial view.

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Figure 11.10 in Rex, sit: digital modeling of Tyrannosaurus rex at rest

Figure 11.10. Elevation of the posterior while anchoring the anterior body by the forelimbs, creating a pose much like a sprint start. The mechanical advantage of a secondclass lever is provided during extension of the hind limbs in raising the COM. With sufficient elevation achieved, the animal could push back and regain bipedal balance, and complete its ascent to a standing pose.