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Figure 12 in The theropod dinosaur Elaphrosaurus bambergi Janensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania

Figure 12. Scapulocoracoids of Elaphrosaurus bambergi: stereophotographs showing left scapulocoracoid in lateral (A) and ventral (C) views, and right scapulocoracoid in ventral view (B). Note: smooth grey areas indicate reconstructed parts. Abbreviations are as described in Figure 11. Scale bar: 5 cm.

Figure 20 in The theropod dinosaur Elaphrosaurus bambergi Janensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania

Figure 20. Left tibia and fibula of Elaphrosaurus bambergi: A–D, left tibia in anterior (A, stereophotographs), lateral (B, stereophotographs), medial (C), and posterior (D) views; E–H, left fibula in medial (E, stereophotographs), anterior (F), posterior (G), and lateral (H) views; I, articulated tibia and fibula in proximal view; J, tibia in distal view. Abbreviations: asc, ascending process of the astragalus; cc, cnemial crest; dg, distal groove; fc, fibular crest; lc, lateral condyle; lr, lateral ridge; md, medial depression; mr, medial ridge; mif, attachment area for musculus iliofibularis; pi, posterior incision. Scale bars: 5 cm.

Figure 15 in The theropod dinosaur Elaphrosaurus bambergi Janensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania

Figure 15. Sacrum and right ilium of Elaphrosaurus bambergi in lateral view (stereophotographs). Abbreviations: avl, anteroventral lobe; bf, brevis fossa; S, sacral vertebra; sac, supraacetabular crest. Scale bar: 5 cm.

Figure 11 in The theropod dinosaur Elaphrosaurus bambergi Janensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania

Figure 11. Right scapulocoracoid of Elaphrosaurus bambergi: stereophotographs showing lateral (A) and medial (B) views. Note: smooth grey areas indicate reconstructed parts. Abbreviations: cf, coracoid foramen; gl, glenoid; scs, scapulocoracoid suture; sgf, supraglenoid fossa; vp, ventral process. Scale bar: 5 cm.

Figure 2 in The theropod dinosaur Elaphrosaurus bambergi Janensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania

Figure 2. Outline reconstruction of Elaphrosaurus bambergi, with preserved elements indicated. Scale bar: 50 cm.

Figure 25 in The theropod dinosaur Elaphrosaurus bambergi Janensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania

Figure 25. Reduced consensus tree of ceratosaur interrelationships, with stratigraphic and geographic distribution indicated.

Figure 14 in The theropod dinosaur Elaphrosaurus bambergi Janensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania

Figure 14. Manual elements of Elaphrosaurus bambergi: A–F, right metacarpal II in dorsal (A, stereophotographs), medial (B, stereophotographs), ventral (C, stereophotographs), lateral (D), proximal (E), and distal (F) views; G–L, left metacarpal IV in ventral (G, stereophotographs), medial (H, stereophotographs), dorsal (I, stereophotographs), lateral (J, stereophotographs), proximal (K), and distal (L) views. Abbreviations: clg, collateral ligament groove; eg, extensor groove; st, step. Scale bars: 1 cm.

Figure 22 in The theropod dinosaur Elaphrosaurus bambergi Janensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania

Figure 22. Left astragalocalcaneum of Elaphrosaurus bambergi in proximal (A, stereophotographs), anterior (B, stereophotographs), distal (C, stereophotographs), posterior (D, stereophotographs), medial (E), and lateral (F) views. Abbreviations: ag, anterior groove; asc, broken base of ascending process; d, depression; ff, fibular facet; ltf, lateral tibial facet; mtf, medial tibial facet; tf, triangular flange. Scale bars: 1 cm.

Figure 24 in The theropod dinosaur Elaphrosaurus bambergi Janensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania

Figure 24. Phylogenetic relationships of Elaphrosaurus bambergi: results of a phylogenetic analysis of 31 theropod taxa and 216 morphological characters. A, strict consensus of 129 360 equally parsimonious trees; B, Adams consensus (see text for details).

Figure 12. Dryolestes leiriensis left inner ear virtual endocast. A, dorsomedial view. B in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 12. Dryolestes leiriensis left inner ear virtual endocast. A, dorsomedial view. B, ventrolateral view. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae; asc, anterior semicircular canal; asca, anterior semicircular canal ampulla; av, aqueductus vestibuli; bpl, base for primary bony lamina of basilar membrane; bsl, base of the secondary bony lamina of basilar membrane; cc, crus commune; cg, cochlear ganglion (blue, reconstructed); cn(viii), reconstructed cochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII); co, cochlear canal basal portion [the first half-turn (180° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction]; co-a, cochlear canal apical portion [the apical quarter-turn (270-180° arc)]; dus, division between utricule and saccule; fc, fenestra cochleae; fcn, foramina for cochlear nerve fibres (cranial nerve VIII) [= tractus spiralis foraminosus, or the foramina through the cribriform plate between the internal acoustic meatus and the cochlear ganglion canal (cg)]; fsa(viii), foramen for saccular nerve; fut (viii), foramen for utricular nerve (VIII); fv, fenestra vestibuli; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ivc, inflection of vestibule and cochlea; lsc, lateral semicircular canal; lsca, lateral semicircular canal ampulla; p-fcn, the posterior-most entry foramen of the cochlear nerve fibres; psc, posterior semicircular canal; psca, posterior semicircular canal ampulla; sa, saccule; scc, secondary crus commune; ut, utricle.

Figure 4 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 4. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal and the inner ear bony labyrinth (Gui Mam 2/81). Micro-computed tomography scan transverse slices of the vestibular and canalicular regions. Continued from Figure 1: J-R, anterior-posterior series from approximately the middle to the posterior end of the inner ear bony labyrinth. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae; asc, anterior semicircular canal; asca, anterior semicircular canal ampulla; av, aqueductus vestibuli; cc, crus commune; fc, fenestra cochleae; fv, fenestra vestibuli; lsc, lateral semicircular canal; lsca, lateral semicircular canal ampulla; nc, nuchal crest component of pars canalicularis; psc, posterior semicircular canal; psca, posterior semicircular canal ampulla; ptc, post-temporal canal (incomplete, preserved as an open groove); sa, saccule; saf, subarcuate fossa; scc, secondary crus commune; sss, sigmoid sinus groove; ut, utricule.

Figure 3 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 3. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal and inner ear bony labyrinth (Gui Mam 2/81). Micro-computed tomography scan transverse slices of the pars cochlearis and the vestibular region. A-I, anterior-posterior series from the anterior end to the approximately middle portion of the inner ear bony labyrinth. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae; asc, anterior semicircular canal; asca, anterior semicircular canal ampulla; av, aqueductus vestibuli; bpl, base for the primary bony lamina of basilar membrane (wall of spiral ganglion canal); bsl, base of the secondary bony lamina of basilar membrane (bony reinforcement of spiral ligament); cc, crus commune; cgc, incomplete and remnant canal for spiral ganglion (= base of the primary bony lamina); co, cochlear canal basal portion [the first half-turn (180° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction]; co-a, cochlear canal apical portion [the apical quarter-turn (270-180° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction]; csf, cavum supracochleare floor (remnant); fc, fenestra cochleae; fcn, foramina of cochlear nerve VIII (= partial tractus spiralis foraminosus, or the cribriform plate); fn + fut, shared space of the facial nerve VII and utricular nerve VIII; fut, foramen for utricular nerve VIII; fv, fenestra vestibuli; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ips, inferior petrosal sinus; ivc, inflection point between the vestibule and cochlea; pfc, prefacial commissure; pff, primary facial foramen; sa, saccule; stf, stapedial muscle fossa; ut, utricle.

Figure 7 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 7. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal (Gui Mam 2/81). A, ventrolateral view of the pars cochlearis. B, ventral view of the pars cochlearis. Abbreviations: cif, crista interfenestralis; cp, crista parotica; csf, cavum supracochleare floor (incompletely preserved as a ridge); ctp, caudal tympanic process; er, epitympanic recess; fc, fenestra cochleae; fi, fossa incudis; fv, fenestra vestibuli; hf, hiatus Fallopii (for greater superficial petrosal nerve, incomplete open notch); mps, medial promontorial sulcus (with uncertain soft-tissue homology); nc, nuchal (lambdoidal) component of pars canalicularis of petrosal; P, parietal (fragments); pa, pila antotica (incomplete); pfc, prefacial commissure; pff, primary facial foramen VII; pica, promontorial sulcus for internal carotid artery; pp, paroccipital process (ventral projection); pr, promontorium; pss, prootic sinus canal (incompletely preserved as open groove); pst, proximal stapedial artery sulcus; ptc, post-temporal canal (for arteria and vena diploëtica magna); ptr, postpromontorial tympanic recess; rcm, resin plastic and coal matrix as preserved in Gui Mam 2/81; rsa?, ramus superior of stapedial artery sulcus (incompletely preserved as open groove, putative); sff, secondary facial foramen (for hyomandibular branch of facial nerve, preserved as open notch); smn, stylomastoid notch (putative); sqd, squamosal contact dorsal part (on pars canalicularis of petrosal); sqv, squamosal contact ventral part (on pars canalicularis of petrosal); stf, stapedial muscle fossa; th?, tympanohyal attachment; ttf, tensor tympani muscle fossa; '?', unidentifiable bone fragments.

Figure 15 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 15. Evolutionary pattern of cochlear canal in therian mammals (cross-sections of the cochlear canal near the foramen (foramina) of the cochlear nerves. A, Sinoconodon (modified from Luo et al., 1995). B, Morganucodon (after Luo, 2001). C, the monotreme Ornithorhynchus (modified from Fleischer, 1973: Abb. 78). D, generalized eutriconodont (Z.-X. Luo, unpubl. data). E, Nemegtbaatar (modified from Hurum, 1998). F, Dryolestes. G, Homo sapiens (modified from Fleischer, 1973). Nodes same as in Figure 1: 1, mammaliaforms; 2, crown Mammalia; 3, theriiforms; 6, cladotherians; 8, crown therians.

Figure 8 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 8. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal (Gui Mam 2/81). A, medial view of the pars cochlearis (vertical stereo pair). B, medioventral view of the pars cochlearis (vertical stereo pair). The external occipital aspect of the petrosal becomes visible in medial views because of a post mortem bending of the pars canalicularis relative to the pars cochlearis. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae canal opening (intramural in jugular notch); av, aqueductus vestibuli canal opening; boc, basioccipital contact (and suture); cif, crista interfenestralis; ctp, caudal tympanic process; eoc, exoccipital contact (and suture); fc, fenestra cochleae; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ips, inferior petrosal sinus –posterior opening of the canal (on tympanic surface); ipsa?, inferior petrosal sinus – anterior opening of the canal (intramural and in the basioccipital-petrosal suture; putative); jf, jugular foramen (exposed as open notch); me, mastoid exposure of pars canalicularis of petrosal (on the occipital aspect of the skull); mps, medial promontorial sulcus (with uncertain soft-tissue homology); nc, nuchal (lambdoidal) component of pars canalicularis of petrosal; p, parietal (fragments); pa, pila antotica (incomplete); pfc, prefacial commissure; pica, promontorial sulcus of internal carotid artery; pp, paroccipital process (ventral projection); pr, promontorium; ptc, post-temporal canal (for arteria and vena diploëtica magna); ptr, postpromontorial tympanic recess; rcm, resin plastic and coal matrix as preserved in Gui Mam 2/81; saf, subarcuate fossa; soc, supraoccipital contact (and suture); sss, sigmoid sinus sulcus; '?', unidentifiable bone fragments.

Figure 6 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 6. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal (Gui Mam 2/81). A, ventromedial view of the pars cochlearis. B, ventral view of the pars cochlearis. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae canal opening (intramural in jugular notch); boc, basioccipital contact (and suture); cif, crista interfenestralis; cp, crista parotica; csf, cavum supracochleare floor (incompletely preserved as a ridge); ctp, caudal tympanic process; eoc, exoccipital contact (and suture); er, epitympanic recess; fc, fenestra cochleae; fi, fossa incudis; fv, fenestra vestibuli; hf, hiatus Fallopii (for greater superficial petrosal nerve VII, incomplete open notch); ips, inferior petrosal sinus – posterior opening of the canal (on tympanic surface); ipsa?, inferior petrosal sinus – anterior opening of the canal (intramural and in the basioccipital-petrosal suture; putative); jf, jugular foramen (exposed as open notch); me, mastoid exposure of pars canalicularis of petrosal (on the occipital aspect of the skull); mps, medial promontorial sulcus (with uncertain soft-tissue homology); p, parietal (fragments); pa, pila antotica (incomplete); pica, promontorial sulcus for internal carotid artery; pp, paroccipital process (ventral projection); pff, primary facial nerve foramen; pr, promontorium; pss, prootic sinus sulcus (canal incompletely preserved as open groove); pst, proximal stapedial artery sulcus; ptc, post-temporal canal (for arteria and vena diploëtica magna); ptr, postpromontorial tympanic recess; rcm, resin plastic and coal matrix as preserved in Gui Mam 2/81; rsa?, ramus superior of stapedial artery sulcus (incompletely preserved as open groove, putative); sff, secondary facial foramen (for hyomandibular branch of facial nerve VII, preserved as open notch); smn, stylomastoid notch (putative); stf, stapedial muscle fossa; th?, tympanohyal attachment base; ttf, tensor tympani muscle fossa; '?', unidentifiable bone fragments.

Figure 11 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 11. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal (Gui Mam 2/81). A, B, stereo photographs of anteromedial view of the pars cochlearis and medial view of pars canalicularis (distorted). C, restoration of the petrosal in internal view (based on camera lucida drawing, corrected after post mortem distortion of the pars canalicularis; the blue area represents conjectural restoration from broken bone). D, structure identification (the occipital aspect of the petrosal becomes visible in medial views because of a post mortem bending of the pars canalicularis relative to the pars cochlearis). Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae canal opening (intramural in jugular notch); av, aqueductus vestibuli canal opening; boc, basioccipital contact (and suture); eoc, exoccipital contact surface; f1, intramural vascular foramen of pars mastoidea (of uncertain homology and located in the supraoccipital suture); f2, intramural vascular foramen of pars mastoidea (of uncertain homology and located in the exoccipital suture); fcn, foramina for cochlear nerve fibres (cranial nerve VIII); iam, internal acoustic meatus; ipsa, inferior petrosal sinus – anterior opening of the canal (intramural and in the basioccipital-petrosal suture; putative); jf, jugular foramen (exposed as open notch); me, mastoid exposure of pars canalicularis of petrosal (on the occipital aspect of the skull); nc, nuchal (lambdoidal) component of pars canalicularis of petrosal; oev, occipital emissary vascular foramen; p, parietal (fragments); pa, pila antotica (incomplete); pfc, prefacial commissure; pff, primary facial nerve foramen; prc, endocranial opening of prootic sinus canal (reconstructed); pss, prootic sinus sulcus; rcm, resin plastic and coal matrix as preserved in Gui Mam 2/81; saf, subarcuate fossa; soc, supraoccipital contact (and suture); sss, sigmoid sinus groove; tsg, transverse sinus groove; vn, vestibular nerve foramen.

Figure 5 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 5. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal and inner ear bony labyrinth (Gui Mam 2/81). Microcomputed tomography scan horizontal (frontal) slices of the pars cochlearis and the vestibular region. A-D, ventral-dorsal series from the lower part of the basal cochlear turn to the apex of the cochlea. Abbreviations: asc, anterior semicircular canal; av, aqueductus vestibuli; bpl, base for primary bony lamina of basilar membrane (= wall of spiral ganglion canal); bsl, secondary bony lamina of basilar membrane (bony reinforcement of spiral ligament); cgc, cochlear ganglion canal; co, cochlear canal basal portion [the first half-turn (180° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction); co-a, cochlear canal apical portion (the apical quarter-turn 180–270° arc) from the sacculo-utricular junction]; dus, division (crest) between utricle and saccule; fc, fenestra cochleae; fcn, foramina for cochlear nerve fibres VIII (= cribriform plate); fn, primary facial nerve foramen VII; fsa, foramen for saccular nerve VIII; fut, foramen for utricular nerve VIII; fut + fn, shared space for facial nerve and vestibular nerve (inside the internal acoustic meatus); fv, fenestra vestibuli; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ips, inferior petrosal sinus; ivc, inflection point between the vestibule and cochlea; lsc, lateral semicircular canal; lsca, lateral semicircular canal ampulla; pa, pila antotica (incomplete); p-fcn, posterior-most foramen of foramina of cochlear nerve; ptc, post-temporal canal (partial, without squamosal wall); sa, saccule; saf, subarcuate fossa; sss, sigmoid sinus sulcus; stf, stapedial muscle fossa; ut, utricle.

Figure 14 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 14. Interpretation of neural and related bony structures in the cochlear canal of Dryolestes. A, virtual reconstruction of the inner ear bony labyrinth from microcomputed tomography. B, structures in cross-section. Yellow, interpretive reconstruction of the cochlear nerve fibres perforating the cochlear nerve VIII foramina (= tractus foraminosus spiralis). Blue, the extent of the spiral ganglion along the cochlear canal, inferred from the basal wall of the ganglion canal. Grey, reconstruction of the incomplete primary bony lamina. The cribriform plate (tractus spiralis foraminosus) and the base of the primary bony lamina are preserved. However, the edge of the primary bony lamina can only be inferred.

Figure 10 in The petrosal and inner ear of the Late Jurassic cladotherian mammal Dryolestes leiriensis and implications for ear evolution in therian mammals

Figure 10. Dryolestes leiriensis left petrosal (Gui Mam 2/81). A, medial view of the pars cochlearis. B, medioventral view of the pars cochlearis. The external occipital aspect of the petrosal becomes visible in medial views because of a post mortem bending of the pars canalicularis relative to the pars cochlearis. Abbreviations: ac, aqueductus cochleae canal opening (intramural in jugular notch); av, aqueductus vestibuli canal opening; boc, basioccipital contact (and suture); eoc, exoccipital contact; fc, fenestra cochleae; fcn, foramina for cochlear nerve fibres; iam, internal acoustic meatus; ips, inferior petrosal sinus – posterior opening of the canal (on tympanic surface); ipsa, inferior petrosal sinus – anterior opening of the canal (intramural and in the basioccipital-petrosal suture; putative); jf, jugular foramen (exposed as open notch); me, mastoid exposure of pars canalicularis of petrosal (on the occipital aspect of the skull); mps, medial promontorial sulcus (with uncertain soft-tissue homology); nc, nuchal (lambdoidal) component of pars canalicularis of petrosal; p, parietal (fragments); pa, pila antotica (incomplete); pfc, prefacial commissure; pff, primary facial nerve foramen; pss, prootic sinus sulcus (incomplete canal); ptc, post-temporal canal (for arteria and vena diploëtica magna); rcm, resin plastic and coal matrix as preserved in Gui Mam 2/81; saf, subarcuate fossa; soc, supraoccipital contact (and suture); ts, transverse septum of internal acoustic meatus; vn, vestibular nerve foramen.