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Fig. 17. Living specimens. A–C in A reassessment of the Neotropical genus Pseudonannolene Silvestri, 1895: cladistic analysis, biogeography, and taxonomic review (Spirostreptida: Pseudonannolenidae)

Fig. 17. Living specimens. A–C. Pseudonannolene callipyge Brölemann, 1902, from Adrianópolis, PR, Brazil. D. P. fontanettiae Iniesta & Ferreira, 2014, from Lavras, MG, Brazil. E. Pseudonannolene spp. from Piquete, SP, Brazil. F. Pseudonannolene spp. from Lassance, MG, Brazil. Photos (A–F) by L.F.M. Iniesta.

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Fig. 18. Living specimens. A. Pseudonannolene urbica Schubart, 1945 in A reassessment of the Neotropical genus Pseudonannolene Silvestri, 1895: cladistic analysis, biogeography, and taxonomic review (Spirostreptida: Pseudonannolenidae)

Fig. 18. Living specimens. A. Pseudonannolene urbica Schubart, 1945, from Mogi das Cruzes, SP, Brazil. B. Pseudonannolene spp. (troglophilic and troglomorphic species) from Lassance, MG, Brazil. C–D. P. granulatasp. nov., from Cambuci, RJ, Brazil.E. P. spelaeaIniesta & Ferreira, 2013, from Carajás, PA, Brazil. F. Pseudonannolene spp., from Adrianópolis, PR, Brazil. Photos (A–B) by L.F.M. Iniesta; (C–D) courtesy of A.B. Kury, (E) courtesy of M.P. Oliveira, and (F) courtesy of C.A.R. Souza.

Fig. 9 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 9. Zoosphaerium tigrioculatum sp. n., holotype: (A) 9th left leg; (B–D) left anterior telopod: (B) anterior view, (C) posterior view, (D) lateral view; (E–G) posterior telopods: (E) anterior view, (F) posterior view, (G) right posterior telopod, posterior view, detail. Roman numerals refer to number of podomere. Abbreviations: cr-t – crenulated, sclerotised teeth, ml – membranous lobe, IH – inner horns, IL – inner lobes, s-p – sclerotised spot, SR – stridulation rib. Scale bars = 1 mm.

Fig. 19. Zoosphaerium pseudoplatylabum Wesener, 2009 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 19. Zoosphaerium pseudoplatylabum Wesener, 2009 (FMNH-INS 7801): (A) female 2nd coxae with vulvae, posterior view; (B) subanal plate with washboard. Abbreviations: Cx – coxite, EP – external, lateral plate, IP – inner, mesal plate, O – operculum. Scale bars = 1 mm.

Fig. 14 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 14. Zoosphaerium heleios sp. n., (A–C, G–I) holotype; (D–F) female paratype: (A) anal shield, lateral view; (B) anal shield, dorsal view; (C) 9th left leg, posterior view; (D) coxae and prefemura of second leg pair with vulvae, posterior view; (E) second right coxa with vulva, detail; (F) female subanal plate with washboard and stridulation ribs; (G–I) left anterior telopod: (G) anterior view, (H) posterior view, (I) lateral view. Roman numerals refer to number of podomere.Abbreviations: 12T – tergite 12, AS – anal shield, cr-t – crenulated, sclerotised teeth, Cx – coxa, EP – external, lateral plate of vulva, IP – inner, mesal plate of vulva, ml – membranous lobe, Pre – prefemur, s-p – sclerotised spot, s-ps – sclerotised spots, SR – stridulation rib. Scale bars = 1 mm.

Fig. 8 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 8. Zoosphaerium bambusoides sp. n., holotype, left antenna, SEM: (A) lateral view, (B) apical view on disc.

Fig. 7 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 7. Zoosphaerium bambusoides sp. n., holotype, posterior telopods: (A) anterior view; (B) posterior view; (C) right posterior telopod, posterior view, detail. Roman numerals refer to number of podomere. Abbreviations: cr-t – crenulated, sclerotised teeth, IH – inner horns, IL – inner lobes. Scale bars = 1 mm.

Fig. 12 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 12. Zoosphaerium darthvaderi sp. n., holotype: (A–C) left anterior telopod: (A) anterior view, (B) lateral view, (C) posterior view; (D–F) posterior telopods: (D) anterior view, (E) posterior view, (F) right chela, posterior view. Roman numerals refer to number of podomere. Abbreviations: cr-t – crenulated, sclerotised teeth, IH – inner horns, IL – inner lobes, s-ps – sclerotised spots, SR – stridulation rib. Scale bars = 1 mm.

Fig. 5 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 5. Zoosphaerium muscorum sp. n., holotype, left antenna, SEM: (A) lateral view, (B) apical view on disc.

Fig. 3 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 3. Zoosphaerium muscorum sp. n., holotype: (A) anal shield, lateral view; (B) anal shield, dorsal view; (C) coxa and prefemur of first left leg with first stigmatic plate, posterior view; (D) 9th left leg, posterior view; (E–G) right anterior telopod: (E) anterior view, (F) posterior view, (G) lateral view. Roman numerals refer to number of podomere. Abbreviations: 12T – tergite 12, AS – anal shield, cr-t – crenulated, sclerotised teeth, Cx – coxa, Pre – prefemur, s-p – sclerotised spot, s-ps – field of sclerotised spots, SR – stridulation ribs, St – stigmatic plate. Scale bars = 1 mm.

Fig. 10 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 10. Zoosphaerium tigrioculatum sp. n., holotype, left antenna, SEM: (A) lateral view; (B) sensilla basiconica on first antennomere; (C) sensilla basiconica on second antennomere (apomorphy of the species); (D) apical view on disc. Arrows point to sensilla. Abbreviation: sb – sensilla basiconica.

Fig. 16 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 16. Zoosphaerium heleios sp. n., holotype, left antenna, SEM: (A) lateral view, (B) sensilla basiconica on 1st antennomere, (C) apical view on disc.

Fig. 1 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 1. Zoosphaerium muscorum sp. n., holotype, 36.5 mm long, watercolour drawing, habitus, natural coloration with some artistic improvisation in the shading and highlights.

Fig. 6 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 6. Zoosphaerium bambusoides sp. n., holotype: (A) habitus, lateral view; (B) coxa and prefemur of first right leg with first stigmatic plate, posterior view; (C) 9th left leg, posterior view; (D–F) left anterior telopod: (D) anterior view, (E) lateral view, (F) posterior view. Roman numerals refer to number of podomere or tergite. Abbreviations: c – collum (tergite 1), h – head, AS – anal shield, cr-t – crenulated, sclerotised teeth, Cx – coxa, Pre – prefemur, s-p – sclerotised spot, SR – stridulation ribs, St – stigmatic plate, th-s – thoracic shield (tergite 2). Scale bars: (A) = 10 mm, (B–F) = 1 mm.

Fig. 15 in Madagascar's living giants: discovery of five new species of endemic giant pill-millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Arthrosphaeridae: Zoosphaerium)

Fig. 15. Zoosphaerium heleios sp. n., holotype, posterior telopods: (A) anterior view; (B) posterior view; (C) right posterior telopod, posterior view. Roman numerals refer to number of podomere. Abbreviations: cr-t – crenulated, sclerotised teeth, IH – inner horns, IL – inner lobes, s-ps – sclerotised spots. Scale bars = 1 mm.

Figure 6 in How many metazoan species live in the world's largest mineral exploration region?

Figure 6. UpSet plot of all CCZ species (named and unnamed species combined) at regional scales (A and B) Top bars show total species shared or independent, intersecting with region in the lower panel (species independent per region correlate to a ''dot'' or shared between region to a ''dash'' connecting the regions). Side bars show total species per region. (A): all species by region, (B), all species in contract areas and reserved areas pooled versus those in APEIs pooled. See also Data S3 and S4.

Figure 5 in How many metazoan species live in the world's largest mineral exploration region?

Figure 5. Species and family diversity in the Clarion-Clipperton (A–D) Diversity estimators (solid line, rarefaction; dashed line, extrapolation): (A) Chao1 species diversity 6,233 (+/¯82 SE); N = 112,428 ind., S(obs) = 4,716; extrapolation maximum sample size: 224,858 ind; (B) Chao2 species diversity 7,620 (+/¯132 SE); N = 1,668 samples; S(obs) = 4,779, extrapolation maximum sample size, 3,336 samples. Family diversity estimators: (C) Chao1 family diversity 469 (+/¯18 SE); N = 70,597 ind., F(obs) = 406; extrapolation maximum. N: 141,194 ind.; (D) Chao2 family diversity 544 (+/¯24 SE); N = 2,179 samples; F(obs) = 423; extrapolation maximum N: 4,358 samples. See also Table 1, Figures S1–S3, and Data S3 and S4.

Figure 3 in How many metazoan species live in the world's largest mineral exploration region?

Figure 3. Fauna from the CCZ (A–J) All fauna are species described from the region and illustrating a range of phyla and size classes, (A) the sea cucumber, Psychropotes dyscrita (Clark, 1920),32 commonly known as the ''gummy squirrel'' (scale bar: 5 cm); (B) the primnoid coral Abyssoprimnoa gemina Cairns, 201539 (scale bar: 5 mm, note the rights to this image are owned by Springer Nature who have granted permission for reuse); (C) the antipatharian coral, Abyssopathes anomala Molodtsova & Opresko, 201731 (scale bar: 2 cm); and (D) the hexactinellid sponge, Sympagella clippertonae Herzog, Amon, Smith & Janussen, 2018.40 (scale bar: 1 cm). Row 2, (E) the cyclostomatid bryozoan, Pandanipora helix Grischenko, Gordon & Melnik, 201830 (scale bar: 500 Mm); (F) the isopod, Macrostylis metallicola Riehl & De Smet, 20207 (scale bar: 0.2 mm); (G) the polychaete, Neanthes goodayi Drennan, Wiklund, Rabone,Georgieva,Dahlgren & Glover, 202127; and (H) the mollusc, Ledella knudseni J. D. Taylor & Wiklund, 201735 (scale bar: 0.5 mm). Row 3, (I) the nematode, Odetenema gesarae Bezerra, Pape, Hauquier & Vanreusel, 202136 (scale bar: 100 Mm); (J) the kinorhynch, Meristoderes taro Sánchez, Pardos & Martínez Arbizu, 201933 (scale bar: 10 Mm); the loriciferan, Fafnirloricus polymetallicus Fujimoto, 202034 (scale bar: 100 Mm), and the copepod, Siphonis aurreus Mercado-Salas, Khodami & Martínez Arbizu, 201928 (scale bar: 100 Mm). All authors provided permission for reuse of plates (please see Acknowledgments).

Figure 2 in How many metazoan species live in the world's largest mineral exploration region?

Figure 2. Rates of species descriptions in the CCZ; proportion of species diversity in the CCZ that is undescribed (A) Rates of new descriptions and publications in the CCZ. Cumulative totals of new taxa (families, genera, and species combined) and new species described from the CCZ and taxonomic publications per year, over the period 1980–2022. Yearly totals of new descriptions also shown. (B) Proportion of recorded benthic metazoan diversity from the CCZ that is undescribed: named species recorded in red (both those described from the CCZ and elsewhere), unnamed species shown in blue (''unassigned'' are records not identified to phyla). Depictions of some of the new CCZ species by phyla: Annelida, Neanthes goodayi Drennan, Wiklund, Rabone, Georgieva, Dahlgren & Glover, 202127; Arthropoda, Siphonis aurreus Mercado-Salas, Khodami & Martínez Arbizu, 201928; Brachiopoda, Oceanithyris juveniformis Bitner & Zezina, 201329; Bryozoa, Pandanipora helix Grischenko, Gordon & Melnik, 201830; Cnidaria, Abyssopathes anomala Molodtsova & Opresko, 201731; Echinodermata, Psychropotes dyscrita (Clark, 1920)32; Kinorhyncha, Meristoderes taro Sánchez, Pardos & Martínez Arbizu, 201933; Loricifera, Fafnirloricus polymetallicus Fujimoto, 202034; Mollusca, Ledella knudseni J. D. Taylor & Wiklund, 201735; Nematoda, Odetenema gesarae Bezerra, Pape, Hauquier & Vanreusel, 202136; Porifera, Chaunoplectella megapora Wang, Zhang, Lu & Wang, 201837; and Tardigrada, Moebjergarctus clarionclippertonensis Bai, Wang, Zhou, Lin, Meng & Fontoura, 2020.38 See also Data S1 and S2 and Table S1.

Figure 1 in How many metazoan species live in the world's largest mineral exploration region?

Figure 1. All geolocated published records of benthic metazoa from the literature and databases Areas of Particular Environmental Interest (APEIs) and exploration mining contract areas, both active and reserved, are shown in outline. The type localities of all species described from the CCZ to date are also shown (185 in total). Background layer: the GEBCO Grid, 2022. See also Figures S4–S6, the key resources table, and supplemental information.