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opencc-zeroJul 2022View details →

Multidecadal, continent-level analysis indicates agricultural practices impact wheat aphid loads more than climate change

Temperature has a large influence on insect abundances, thus under climate change, identifying major drivers affecting pest insect populations is critical to world food security and agricultural ecosystem health. Here, we conducted a meta-analysis with data obtained from 120 studies across China and Europe from 1970 to 2017 to reveal how climate and agricultural practices affect populations of wheat aphids. Here we showed that aphid loads on wheat had distinct patterns between these two regions, with a significant increase in China but a decrease in Europe over this time period. Although temperature increased over this period in both regions, we found no evidence showing climate warming affected aphid loads. Rather, differences in pesticide use, fertilization, land use, and natural enemies between China and Europe may be key factors accounting for differences in aphid pest populations. These long-term data suggest that agricultural practices impact wheat aphid loads more than climate warming.

opencc-zeroJul 2022View details →

Data from: Climate warming leads to advanced fruit development period of temperate woody species but divergent changes in its length

Climate warming has significantly altered the phenology of plants in recent decades. However, in contrast to the widely reported warming-induced extension of vegetative growing season, the response of fruit development period (FDP) from flowering to fruiting remains largely unexplored, particularly for woody plants. Analyzing >560,000 in situ observations of both flowering and fruiting dates for six temperate woody species across 2958 European phenological observations sites during 1980 – 2013, we found that in all species both flowering and fruiting phenology, i.e., the FDP, advanced with climate warming. However, the advancing rates of the two events were not necessarily equal for any given species, resulting in divergent changes in the length of FDP among species with climate warming. During 1980 – 2013, not only the temperature during FDP but also the forcing requirement for fruit development increased, both affecting the length of FDP. The shortened FDP was mainly due to elevated temperature, thus accelerating the accumulation of forcing, whereas the prolonged FDP was primarily caused by the substantial increase of the forcing requirement of fruiting, which could be fulfilled only in a longer time and thus slowed down the advance of fruiting. This study provides large-scale empirical evidence of warming-induced advances of FDP but divergent changes in its length in temperate woody species. Our findings demonstrate the contrasting reproductive phenological strategies among temperate woody species under the pressure of warming climate, contrary to the lengthening of vegetative growing season, which is by and largely similar with different woody species.

opencc-zeroJul 2022View details →

Data for: Forecasting shifts in habitat suitability of three marine predators suggests a rapid decline in inter-specific overlap under future climate change

Aim: To estimate spatiotemporal changes in habitat suitability and inter-specific overlap among three marine predators: Baltic grey seals (Halichoerus grypus grypus), harbour seals (Phoca vitulina), and harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) under contemporary and future conditions. Location: The southwestern region of the Baltic Sea, including the Danish Straits and the Kattegat, one of the fastest-warming semi-enclosed seas in the world. Methods: Location data (>200 tagged individuals) were analysed within the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm to estimate changes in total area size and overlap of species-specific habitat suitability between 1997-2020 and 2091-2100. A total of eleven candidate predictor variables were considered representing anthropogenic activity, environmental, and climate sensitive oceanographic conditions in the area. Sea surface temperature and salinity data were taken from representative concentration pathways [RCPs] scenarios 6.0 and 8.5 to forecast potential climate change effects. Results: Model output suggests that habitat suitability of Baltic grey seals will decline drastically over space and time, largely driven by changes in sea surface salinity and a loss of currently available haulout sites following sea level rise in the future. A similar though weaker response was observed for harbour seals, while suitability of habitat for harbour porpoises was predicted to remain fairly stable over space and time. Inter-specific overlap in highly suitable habitat was predicted to increase slightly under RCP scenario 6.0 when compared to contemporary conditions but to largely disappear under RCP scenario 8.5. Main conclusions: Marine predators in the southwestern Baltic Sea and adjacent waters may respond differently to future climatic conditions, leading to divergent shifts in habitat suitability that are likely to decrease inter-specific overlap. We, therefore, conclude that climate change can lead to a marked redistribution of area use by marine predators in the region, which may influence local food-web dynamics and ecosystem functioning.

opencc-by-4.0Aug 2022View details →

Data from: Changes to climate patterns significantly alter the growth of juvenile Chinook and steelhead in the Salmon River, Idaho

dataset used for: Changes to climate patterns significantly alter the growth of juvenile Chinook and steelhead in the Salmon River, Idaho

opencc-by-4.0Aug 2022View details →

Data from "Projections of leaf turgor loss point shifts under future climate change scenarios" (Tordoni et al. 2022 Global Change Biology)

The dataset includes four sheets representing the average turgor loss point (tlp) values at grid cell level (tlp_data) and the climatic variables and related climate change scenarios derived from the three models used in this study (HadGEM2-ES-RACMO22E, EC-EARTH_RACMO22E, EC-EARTH_CCLM4-8-17, respectively). The sheet "tlp_data" reports the cell ID (OGU) and the average tlp values for each taxonomic group considered in this study (gymnosperms, angiosperms, herbaceous and woody angiosperms).  Each of the other three sheets reports the cell ID (OGU), coordinates of the cell centroid (Long, Lat) and a set of six climatic variables: 95th percentiles of average temperature (BIO1.95, °C), temperature seasonality (BIO4, °C), annual consecutive frost days where temperature was ≤ 0 °C (CFD.ann, n° days), annual consecutive dry days where precipitation was < 1 mm (CDD.ann, n° days), 5th percentiles of cumulate annual precipitation (BIO12.5, mm), and precipitation seasonality (BIO15, %). For each model, "hist" refers to historical data encompassing the period 1970-2005, whereas "RCP2.6" and "RCP8.5" reports the average value of future projections for the period 2080-2100 in two representative concentration pathway (RCP) scenarios (RCP2.6 and RCP8.5).

VCF datasets and analysis scripts for: The combination of genomic offset and niche modelling provides insights into climate change-driven vulnerability

Global warming is increasingly exacerbating biodiversity loss. Populations locally adapted to spatially heterogeneous environments may respond differentially to climate change, but this intraspecific variation has only recently been considered when modelling vulnerability under climate change. Here, we incorporate intraspecific variation in genomic offset and ecological niche modelling to estimate climate change-driven vulnerability in two bird species in the Sino-Himalayan Mountains. We found that the cold-tolerant populations show higher genomic offset but risk less challenge for niche suitability decline under future climate than the warm-tolerant populations. Based on a genome-niche index estimated by combining genomic offset and niche suitability change, we identified the populations with the least genome-niche interruption as potential donors for evolutionary rescue, i.e., the populations tolerant to climate change. We evaluated potential rescue routes via a landscape genetic analysis. Overall, we demonstrate that the integration of genomic offset, niche suitability modelling, and landscape connectivity can improve climate change-driven vulnerability assessments and facilitate effective conservation management.

Data for: Social-ecological vulnerability of fishing communities to climate change: a U.S. West Coast case study

Climate change is already impacting coastal communities, and ongoing and future shifts in fisheries species productivity from climate change have implications for the livelihoods and cultures of coastal communities. Harvested marine species in the California Current Large Marine Ecosystem support U.S. West Coast communities economically, socially, and culturally. Ecological vulnerability assessments exist for individual species in the California Current but ecological and human vulnerability are linked and vulnerability is expected to vary by community. Here, we present automatable, reproducible methods for assessing the vulnerability of U.S. West Coast fishing-dependent communities to climate change within a social-ecological vulnerability framework. We first assessed the ecological risk of marine resources, on which fishing communities rely, to 50 years of climate change projections. We then combined this with the adaptive capacity of fishing communities, based on social indicators, to assess the potential ability of communities to cope with future changes. Specific communities (particularly in Washington state) were determined to be at risk to climate change mainly due to economic reliance on at risk marine fisheries species, like salmon, hake, or sea urchins. But, due to higher social adaptive capacity, these communities were often not found to be the most vulnerable overall. Conversely, certain communities that were not the most at risk, ecologically and economically, ranked in the category of highly vulnerable communities due to low adaptive capacity based on social indicators (particularly in Southern California). Certain communities were both ecologically at risk due to catch composition and socially vulnerable (low adaptive capacity) leading to the highest tier of vulnerability. The integration of climatic, ecological, economic, and societal data reveals that factors underlying vulnerability are variable across fishing communities on the U.S West Coast, and suggests the need to develop a variety of well-aligned strategies to adapt to the ecological impacts of climate change.

Response of distribution patterns of two closely related species in Taxus genus to climate change since last inter-glacial

Climate change affects species' spatio-temporal distribution deeply. However, how climate affects the spatio-temporal distribution pattern of related species on the large scale remains largely unclear. Here, we selected two closely related species in the Taxus genus, Taxus chinensis and Taxus mairei, to explore their distribution pattern. Four environmental variables were employed to simulate the distribution patterns using the optimized Maxent model. The results showed that the highly suitable area of T. chinensis and T. mairei in the current period was 1.616 × 105 km2 and 3.093 × 105 km2, respectively. The distribution area of T. chinensis was smaller than that of T. mairei in different periods. Comparison of different periods shows that the distribution area of the two species was almost in stasis from LIG to the future periods. Temperature and precipitation were the main climate factors that determined the potential distribution of the two species. The centroids of T. chinensis and T. mairei were in Sichuan and Hunan provinces in current period, respectively. In the future, the centroid migration direction of the two species would shift towards the northeast. Our results revealed that the average elevation distribution of T. chinensis was higher than that of T. mairei. This study sheds new insights into the habitat preference and limiting environmental factors of the two related species and provides a valuable reference for the conservation of these two threatened species.

Data from: Will climate change cause the global peatland to expand or contract? Evidence from the habitat shift pattern of Sphagnum mosses

Peatlands play a crucial role in the global carbon cycle. Sphagnum mosses (peat mosses) are considered to be the peatland ecosystem engineers and contribute to the carbon accumulation in the peatland ecosystems. As cold-adapted species, the dominance of Sphagnum mosses in peatlands will be threatened by climate warming. The response of Sphagnum mosses to climate change is closely related to the future trajectory of carbon fluxes in peatlands. However, the impact of climate change on the habitat suitability of Sphagnum mosses on a global scale is poorly understood. To predict the potential impact of climate change on the global distribution of Sphagnum mosses, we used the MaxEnt model to predict the potential geographic distribution of six Sphagnum species that dominate peatlands in the future (2050 and 2070) under two greenhouse gas emission scenarios (SSP1-2.6 and SSP5-8.5). The results show that the mean temperature of the coldest quarter, precipitation of the driest month, and topsoil calcium carbonate are the main factors affecting the habitat availability of Sphagnum mosses. As the climate warms, Sphagnum mosses tend to migrate northward. The suitable habitat and abundance of Sphagnum mosses increase extensively in the high-latitude boreal peatland (north of 50° N) and decrease on a large scale beyond the high-latitude boreal peatland. The southern edge of boreal peatlands would experience the greatest decline in the suitable habitat and richness of Sphagnum mosses with the temperature rising, and would be a risk area for the transition from carbon sink to carbon source. The spatial-temporal pattern changes of Sphagnum mosses simulated in this study provide a reference for the development of management and conservation strategies for Sphagnum bogs.

Climate change effects on deep-water corals – habitat suitability model input data

Deep-water corals are protected in the seas around New Zealand by legislation that prohibits intentional damage and removal, and by marine protected areas where bottom trawling is prohibited. However, these measures do not protect them from the impacts of a changing climate and ocean acidification. To enable adequate future protection from these threats we require knowledge of the present distribution of corals and the environmental conditions that determine their preferred habitat, as well as the likely future changes in these conditions, so that we can identify areas for potential refugia. In this study, we built habitat suitability models for 12 taxa of deep-water corals using a comprehensive set of sample data and predicted present and future seafloor environmental conditions from an earth system model specifically tailored for the South Pacific. These models predicted that for most taxa there will be substantial shifts in the location of the most suitable habitat and decreases in the area of such habitat by the end of the 21st century, driven primarily by decreases in seafloor oxygen concentrations, shoaling of aragonite and calcite saturation horizons, and increases in nitrogen concentrations. The current network of protected areas in the region appear to provide little protection for most coral taxa, as there is little overlap with areas of highest habitat suitability, either in the present or the future. We recommend an urgent re-examination of the spatial distribution of protected areas for deep-water corals in the region, utilising spatial planning software that can balance protection requirements against value from fishing and mineral resources, take into account the current status of the coral habitats after decades of bottom trawling, and consider connectivity pathways for colonisation of corals into potential refugia.

opencc-zeroSep 2022View details →

Files associated with: Migration-based simulations for Canadian trees show limited tracking of suitable climate under climate change

Aim Species distribution models typically project climatically suitable habitat for trees in eastern North America to shift hundreds of kilometers this century. We simulated potential migration considering species' life history and traits for 10 tree species and their ability to track climatically suitable habitat. Location Eastern Canada, covering ~3.7 million km2 Methods We simulated migration-constrained range shifts through 2100 using a hybrid approach combining projections of climatically suitable habitat based on two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP4.5, RCP8.5) for three time periods and two species distribution modelling approaches with process-based models parameterized using data related to dispersal ability and generation time. We developed a unique 'migration kernel' that uses seed dispersal traits and observed migration velocities to obtain kernel shape and dispersal probabilities. We then calculated lags between the migration-constrained range limits obtained through simulations and limits of climatically suitable habitat. Results All species demonstrated northward range shifts at the leading edge of their simulated distribution through 2100, but the magnitude and rate of that shift varied by species and time period. Climatically suitable habitat limits were found to be north of simulated distribution limits across both RCPs, with lags increasing through time. On average, the simulated distribution that remained within climatically suitable habitat showed higher decreases under RCP8.5 than RCP4.5, with large areas of the rear edge of the simulated distribution becoming partially or completely climatically unsuitable for many species. Main conclusions Climatically suitable habitat limits projected for 2100 far exceeded migration-constrained range limits for all 10 species, particularly for temperate species. This study underlines the limited extent to which species will track climate change via natural migration. Integrating observed migration velocities, seed dispersal and generation time with SDM outputs allows for more realistic evaluations of tree migration ability under climate change and may help orient forest conservation and restoration efforts.

opencc-zeroSep 2022View details →

High resolution ancient sedimentary DNA shows that alpine plant diversity is associated with human land use and climate change

The European Alps are highly rich in species, but their future may be threatened by ongoing changes in human land use and climate. Here, we reconstructed vegetation, temperature, human impact and livestock over the past ~12,000 years from Lake Sulsseewli, based on sedimentary ancient plant and mammal DNA, pollen, spores, chironomids, and microcharcoal. We assembled a highly-complete local DNA reference library (PhyloAlps, 3,923 plant taxa), and used this to obtain an exceptionally rich sedaDNA record of 366 plant taxa. Vegetation mainly responded to climate during the early Holocene, while human activity had an additional influence on vegetation from 6 ka onwards. Land-use shifted from episodic grazing during the Neolithic and Bronze Age to agropastoralism in the Middle Ages. Associated human deforestation allowed the coexistence of plant species typically found at different elevational belts, leading to levels of plant richness that characterise the current high diversity of this region. Our findings indicate a positive association between low-intensity agropastoral activities and precipitation with the maintenance of the unique subalpine and alpine plant diversity of the European Alps.

opencc-by-4.0Jul 2022View details →

Data and code of Land use scenario for 'Development of common socio-economic scenarios for climate change impact assessments in Japan'

Land use scenario calculation: Executable files, source code files and data files This dataset contains program codes and input data used for reproducing land use scenarios explained in Chapter 5.2 in Yoshikawa et al. (submitted to GMDD). We found a few fatal errors in the following code. These code were fixed from version 2 (http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7090670). /Step3/a01_calc_land_use.py /Step3/a01_calc_land_use_std.py /Step3/a01_calc_land_use_rate.py /Step3/run03.bat

opencc-zeroSep 2022View details →

Global potential invasion maps of traded birds under climate and land-cover change

Biological invasions rank among the top five threatening factors affecting biodiversity, but ongoing changes in climate and land cover might exacerbate risks. We used species distribution models for 609 traded bird species on the CITES list to examine the combined effects of projected climate change and land-cover change worldwide on the potential range expansion of bird species with commercial value as pets. The maps of potential invasion (may be inferred as the invasion risk) have been provided in the main manuscript and here, the potential invasion dataset for the current and future times is provided including the species distribution maps, all as GeoTiff files. The maps for the future time are provided for different future years and over a range of climate scenarios (SSP245, SSP370, and SSP585).

opencc-zeroOct 2022View details →

Changing plant species composition and richness benefit soil carbon sequestration under climate warming

Anthropogenic warming and land-use change are expected to accelerate global soil organic carbon (SOC) losses and change plant species composition and richness. However, how changes in plant composition and species richness mediate SOC responses to climate warming and land-use change remains poorly understood. Using data from a 7-year warming and clipping field experiment in an alpine meadow on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, we examined the direct effects of warming and clipping on SOC storage versus their indirect effects mediated by plant functional type and species richness. We found that warming significantly increased SOC storage by 8.1% and clipping decreased it by 6.4%, which was closely correlated with the corresponding response of below-ground net primary productivity (BNPP). We also found a negative correlation between SOC storage and species richness, which was ascribed to the increased BNPP via enhancing the dominance of grasses and decreasing species richness under warming. The lower SOC storage under clipping was caused by the clipping-induced decrease in BNPP via weakening the dominance of grasses and increasing species richness. Our findings highlight that the SOC storage in this alpine meadow under climate warming and clipping was primarily governed by BNPP, which was mediated by changes in the dominance of grasses and species richness. Overall, our study demonstrates that shifting to the dominance of grasses and changing species richness would benefit soil C sequestration under climate warming, but this positive effect would be dampened by grazing or hay harvest.

opencc-zeroOct 2022View details →

Dispersal and coastal geomorphology limit potential for mangrove range expansion under climate change

Latitudinal range limits for mangroves on high-energy, wave-dominated coasts are controlled by geomorphological features and estuarine dynamics. Mangroves reach a southern global range limit along the South African coastline, but the distribution is patchy, with stands occurring in only 16% of the estuaries in the region. Yet, the persistence of forests planted >50 years ago beyond the natural distribution limit suggests that additional estuaries could support mangroves. Understanding regional drivers is necessary to inform global scale estimates for how this important ecosystem is predicted to respond to climate change. Here, we combine species distribution modeling (MaxEnt), Lagrangian particle tracking using an eddy- and tide-resolving numerical ocean model, and connectivity matrices, to identify suitable mangrove habitats at present, as well as under the IPCC RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 climate scenarios. Within the current South African distribution range (± 900 km), eight more estuaries were identified as suitable under contemporary conditions. When considering potential range extension (± 110 km), an additional 14 suitable estuaries were identified. Connectivity matrices suggest limited long-distance dispersal, stranding mostly at or near the release location, and a decreased probability of connectivity towards the range limit. Under both future climate scenarios, 30% of estuaries currently supporting mangroves are predicted to become unsuitable, while an additional six estuaries beyond the current distribution are predicted to become suitable. However, there is limited connectivity between these new sites and established forests. Synthesis: This study shows that dispersal substantially limits mangrove distribution at the southern African range limit and highlights the importance of including this process in species distribution models. Ultimately, our results provide new insight for mangrove conservation and management at range limits that are not controlled predominantly by temperature, as it has been assumed that mangroves will largely expand to higher latitudes under climate change.

opencc-by-4.0Oct 2022View details →

Forecast of the competitiveness of EU regions in the conditions of climate change

The database contains forecasts of the values of climate change competitiveness (Regional Climate Change Competitiveness Index) of EU regions (NUTS2) and countries. The calculations were made for the period 2022-2032 and for period 2022-2100 using the ARIMA method. The Regional Climate Change Competitiveness Index is a mean to evaluate the ability of a region to use factors of competitiveness for the formation of a competitive position of the region under climate change conditions.The structure of the index stems from the premise that it constitutes a function of pillars that can be grouped into six broad sub-indexes: Basic, Natural, Efficiency, Innovation, Sectoral, and Social.Twenty-eight pillars were used in order to determine the main index.  The higher the value of Regional Climate Change Competitiveness Index, the higher the level of regional competitiveness. For detailed methodology see: Karman, A.; Miszczuk, A.; Bronisz, U. Regional Climate Change Competitiveness—Modelling Approach. Energies 2021, 14, 3704. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123704. The forecast can be used by regional authorities to model regional policy (policy-mix, tools, measures) against the climate change. Funding: National Science Centre Poland, &bdquo;Modelling of climate change impacts on regional competitiveness” 2019/35/B/HS5/01548

opencc-by-4.0Oct 2022View details →

Dataset: Selecting tree species to restore forest under climate change conditions: complementing species distribution models with field experimentation

This repository contains the files associated with the following article: Jesús Sandoval-Martínez, Ernesto I. Badano, Francisco A. Guerra-Coss, Jorge A. Flores Cano, Joel Flores, Sandra Milena Gelviz-Gelvez, Felipe Barragán-Torres, “Selecting tree species to restore forest under climate change conditions: complementing species distribution models with field experimentation”, submitted to Journal of Environmental Management. Supplementary material 01 is a compressed file that contains two Microsoft Excel files with data that support the results of the study. A file correspond to Vachellia pennatula and the another file correspond to Prosopis laevigata. In both files, the first spreadsheet shows the occurrence data (latitude and longitude) used to calibrate the distribution model (SDM) of the corresponding species, the current values of the 19 bioclimatic variables associated with these coordinates and the Spearman correlation coefficients used to select the variables included in the SDM (selected variables are indicated in green). The second spreadsheet shows the current habitat occupancy probabilities of the target species estimated with the SDM at the geographic coordinates of occurrence points, while the table on the side shows the fraction of true presences dropping at the following probability categories: (1) habitat occupancy probabilities below 0.1 = unsuitable spatial units for the species, (2) habitat occupancy probabilities between 0.1 and 0.4 = barely suitable spatial units for the species, (3) habitat occupancy probabilities between 0.4 and 0.7 = moderately suitable spatial units for the species, and (4) habitat occupancy probabilities above 0.7 = highly suitable spatial units for the species. The third spreadsheet shows the one-thousand random geographic coordinates and the corresponding current and future habitat occupancy probabilities of each species. Future habitat occupancy probabilities are provided for three time periods (2041-2060, 2061-2080 and 2081-2100) at four radiative forcing levels each (2.6, 4.5, 7.0 and 8.5 W/m2). Supplementary material 02 is a compressed file that contains a folder for Vachellia pennatula and another folder for Prosopis laevigata. Each of these folders contains the summaries of the MaxEnt outputs that support the results of the corresponding SDM. Supplementary material 03 is a compressed Keyhole Markup Language file (KMZ) that contains interactive maps that are optimized for the desktop version of Google Earth. To accelerate visualization of maps, we recommend installing this software in a computer meeting the following requirements: CPU Intel Core i5 9th generation or higher, CPU clock speed 1.8 GHz or higher, random-access memory (RAM) 8 GB or higher, and video random access memory (VRAM) 1 GB or higher. Otherwise, opening this file may take several minutes. These maps are organized in a folder for Vachellia pennatula and another folder for Prosopis laevigata, which must be expanded for accessing the following information (click on the arrow on the left of folders to expand them): <ul> <li>Current climate – Activating this folder (click the fox on the left of the folder) display the map of habitat occupancy probabilities of species across Mexico under the current climate.</li> <li>Period 2041-2060, 2061-2080  and 2081-2100 – Expanding each of these folders (click on the arrow on the left of folders) shows four subfolders that correspond to different radiative forcing levels (2.6, 4.5, 7.0 and 8.5 W/m2). Activating each of these sub folders (click the fox on the left of subfolders) display the map of habitat occupancy probabilities of species across Mexico expected on the corresponding time period and radiative forcing level. These maps also show the areas classified as climatically unsuitable in the multivariate environmental similarity surface (MESS) analysis. Clicking on the names of subfolders displays a figure showing the relationship between current and future habitat occupancy probabilities of the species on the corresponding time period and radiative forcing level. In these figures, the red line is the empirical relationship between these variables and the solid blue line is the theoretical relationship with intercept = 0 and slope = 1. The statistical results that support these relationships are also shown in these figures.</li> </ul> Supplementary material 04 is a compressed file that contains two Microsoft Excel files with data that support the results of the study. the file labeled as “Microclimate data” contains two spreadsheets, which correspond to the temperature and rainfall values measured in controls under the current climate and climate change simulation plots located of the field experiments. The file levelled as “Seedling emergence and survival” contains a spreadsheet for Vachellia pennatula and another one for Prosopis laevigata, which contains the data used to estimate the seedling emergence and survival rates in controls and climate change simulation plots.

opencc-by-4.0Oct 2022View details →

Text Mining as a Support Tool for Research on Climate Change: Theoretical and Technical Considerations

839 companies listed on the Australian Stock Exchange were surveyed for climate risk disclosures, with 201 such disclosures identified.