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836 results for “Toads”
Figure 3 from: Xie T-Y, Liu G-Q (2018) Notes on some toad bugs from China (Hemiptera, Heteroptera, Gelastocoridae). ZooKeys 759: 137-147. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.759.21627
Figure 3 Nerthra indica (Atkinson). A–B Genital capsule in different views C–D Right paramere in different views E Ventral view of posterior abdominal segments of male F Female subgenital plate G hind wing.
Figure 2 from: Xie T-Y, Liu G-Q (2018) Notes on some toad bugs from China (Hemiptera, Heteroptera, Gelastocoridae). ZooKeys 759: 137-147. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.759.21627
Figure 2 Nerthra asiatica (Horváth). A–B Genital capsule in different views C–D Right paramere in different views E Ventral view of posterior abdominal segments of male F Female subgenital plate G hind wing.
Figure 1 from: Xie T-Y, Liu G-Q (2018) Notes on some toad bugs from China (Hemiptera, Heteroptera, Gelastocoridae). ZooKeys 759: 137-147. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.759.21627
Figure 1 Dorsal habitus of Nerthra spp. A N. asiatica (Horváth) (♂) B N. asiatica (♀) C N. indica (Atkinson) (♂) D N. indica (♀).
FIGURE 9 in Redescription of the Amazonian tiny tree toad Amazophrynella minuta (Melin, 1941) (Anura: Bufonidae) from its type locality
FIGURE 9. Axillary amplexus between specimens of Amazophrynella minuta (Melin, 1941)
Figure 2 in Among the world 's smallest vertebrates: a new miniaturized flea-toad (Brachycephalidae) from the Atlantic rainforest
Figure 2 Brachycephalusdacnis paratype (ZUEC-AMP 25612) adult male, SVL = 7.89 mm. (A) Dorsal view, (B) ventral view, (C) ventral view of hand, (D) ventral view of feet. Full-size DOI: 10.7717/peerj.18265/fig-2
Figure 4 in Among the world 's smallest vertebrates: a new miniaturized flea-toad (Brachycephalidae) from the Atlantic rainforest
Figure 4 Ventral dissection of Brachycephalus dacnis (ZUEC-AMP 25273) with the highlighted structures. (A) Abdominal muscles, (B) Liver, (C) Small intestine; (D) Atrium, (E) Ventricle, (F) Conus arteriosus, (G) Truncus arteriosus, (H) Carotid artery, (I) Systemic artery, (J) Parathyroid gland, (K) Eggs, (L) Oviduct. Full-size DOI: 10.7717/peerj.18265/fig-4
Data from: Terrestrial reproduction as an adaptation to steep terrain in African toads
How evolutionary novelties evolve is a major question in evolutionary biology. It is widely accepted that changes in environmental conditions shift the position of selective optima, and advancements in phylogenetic comparative approaches allow the rigorous testing of such correlated transitions. A longstanding question in vertebrate biology has been the evolution of terrestrial life histories in amphibians and here, by investigating African bufonids, we test whether terrestrial modes of reproduction have evolved as adaptations to particular abiotic habitat parameters. We reconstruct and date the most complete species-level molecular phylogeny and estimate ancestral states for reproductive modes. By correlating continuous habitat measurements from remote sensing data and locality records with life-history transitions, we discover that terrestrial modes of reproduction, including viviparity evolved multiple times in this group, most often directly from fully aquatic modes. Terrestrial modes of reproduction are strongly correlated with steep terrain and low availability of accumulated water sources. Evolutionary transitions to terrestrial modes of reproduction occurred synchronously with or after transitions in habitat, and we, therefore, interpret terrestrial breeding as an adaptation to these abiotic conditions, rather than an exaptation that facilitated the colonization of montane habitats.
Data from: Phylogenetic relationships of toads of the Rhinella granulosa group (Anura: Bufonidae): a molecular perspective with comments on hybridization and introgression
The Rhinella granulosa group consists of 13 species of toads distributed throughout open areas of South America and Panama. In this paper we perform a phylogenetic analysis considering all but one species of the group, employing five nuclear and four mitochondrial genes, for up to 7910 bp per specimen. Separate phylogenetic analyses under direct optimization (DO) of nuclear and mitochondrial sequences recovered the R. granulosa group as monophyletic and revealed topological incongruence that can be explained mainly by multiple events of hybridization and introgression, both mitochondrial and nuclear. The DO combined analysis, after the exclusion of putatively introgressed or heterozygous genomes, resulted in a phylogenetic hypothesis for the R. granulosa group in which most of the species are recovered as monophyletic, but with interspecific relationships poorly supported. The optimization of morphological (adult and larval), chromosomal, and behavioural characters resulted in 12 putative phenotypic synapomorphies for this species group and some other synapomorphies for internal clades. Our results indicate the need for additional population genetic studies on R. dorbignyi and R. fernandezae to corroborate the taxonomic status of both taxa. Finally, we discuss biological and genetic characteristics of Bufonidae, as possible explanations for the common occurrence of hybridization and introgression observed in some lineages of this family.
Data from: Competition induces increased toxin production in toad larvae without allelopathic effects on heterospecific tadpoles
1. Inducible defences are a form of phenotypic plasticity by which organisms respond to and mitigate the threat posed by predators, parasites and competitors. While anti-predatory defences are often in trade-off with anti-competitor responses, chemicals that deter predators may have negative effects on competitors as well. Allelopathy is well known in plants and plant-like animals, but whether the toxins of mobile, behaviourally and morphologically complex animals are induced by and exert allelopathic effects on competitors is poorly known. 2. Common toads Bufo bufo synthesize bufadienolides which make them unpalatable or toxic to many predators. However, bufadienolide content of toad tadpoles correlates positively with the density of competitors in natural populations, suggesting that they may upregulate their toxin production to inhibit their competitors, such as heterospecific tadpoles that may be vulnerable to toad toxins. 3. We conducted a microcosm experiment with tadpoles of common toads and agile frogs Rana dalmatina, in which we manipulated the density of conspecific and heterospecific competitors. We measured the bufadienolide content of toad tadpoles to test for competitor-induced changes in toxin production, and we assessed the growth and development of agile frog tadpoles to test for allelopathy. 4. We found that toad tadpoles contained higher amounts of bufadienolides at higher densities; however, heterospecific competitors did not have a stronger effect than conspecifics. Furthermore, the presence or density of toad tadpoles had no effect on the body mass and development rate of agile frog tadpoles. 5. Our results demonstrate competitor-induced plasticity in toxin production, but we found no support for an allelopathic function of bufadienolides. Instead, we suggest that inducible changes in bufadienolide production may serve to mitigate risks posed by competitors, including aggression, cannibalism or disease. Therefore, bufadienolides are intriguing candidates for multi-purpose defences that may provide protection not only against predators but also against competitors.
Files used in the analyses from A role of asynchrony of seasons in explaining genetic differentiation in a Neotropical toad
<p>The process of diversification can be studied at the phylogeographic level by attempting to identify the environmental features that promote and maintain population divergence. Here we investigate diversification in <i>Rhinella granulosa</i>, a Neotropical toad from northeastern Brazil, by testing a range of hypotheses that encompass different putative mechanisms reducing gene flow among populations. We sequenced single nucleotide polymorphisms and examined individual predictions related to the role of geographic barriers (rivers), ecological gradients, historical habitat stability, and spatial variation in climate seasonality, also known as the asynchrony of seasons hypothesis. This hypothesis postulates that temporal asynchrony of wet and dry seasons over short distances causes parapatric populations to become isolated by time. After determining genetic structure, inferring past distributions, ranking demographic models, and estimating the power of monthly climatic variables, our results identified two populations that are not associated with geographic barriers, biome gradients, or historical refugia. Instead, they are predicted by spatial variation in monthly rainfall and minimum temperature, consistent with the asynchrony of seasons hypothesis, supported also by our comparative framework using multiple matrix regression and linear mixed effects modeling. Due to the toad's life history, climate likely mediates gene flow directly, with genetic differentiation being provoked by neutral mechanisms related to climate driven population isolation, and/or by natural selection against migrants from populations with different breeding times. The asynchrony of seasons hypothesis is seldom considered in phylogeographic studies, but our results indicate that it should be tested in systems where breeding is tightly coupled with climate. </p>
Fig. 2 in A revision of the Asian tree toad complex Rentapia hosii (Anura: Bufonidae) with the description of a new species from Peninsular Malaysia
Fig. 2. Clustering of populations in morphospace as inferred from the first three principal components of the PCA analysis (A–C; E–G) and the discriminant analysis of principal components (D, H).
Fig. 6 in A revision of the Asian tree toad complex Rentapia hosii (Anura: Bufonidae) with the description of a new species from Peninsular Malaysia
Fig. 6. Dorsal and ventral images of Rentapia flavomaculata, new species, paratype UMTZC 1404 (A, B) from Sungai Bubu, Terengganu, Malaysia and BBM 7252 (C, D) from Kota Tinggi, Johor, Malaysia.
FIG. 5 in Evolution In The Genus Rhinella: A Total Evidence Phylogenetic Analysis Of Neotropical True Toads (Anura: Bufonidae)
FIG. 5. Skulls (ventral view) showing the anterior margin of cultriform process of the parasphenoid (in gray): A, Rhinella marina KU 152914 (char. 23.0); B, Nannophryne cophotis KU 218525 (char. 23.1); C, R . festae USNM 167168 (char. 23.2); D, R . cristinae ICN 26233 (char. 23.3). Panels redrawn from Pramuk, 2006 (A, B); Trueb, 1971(C) and Vélez-R. and Ruiz-C., 2002 (D).
Figure 3 from: Bisht K, Garg S, Sarmah ANDA, Sengupta S, Biju SD (2021) Lost, forgotten, and overlooked: systematic reassessment of two lesser-known toad species (Anura, Bufonidae) from Peninsular India and another wide-ranging northern species. Zoosystematics and Evolution 97(2): 451-470. https://doi.org/10.3897/zse.97.61770
Figure 3 Phylogenetic relationships and genetic differentiation in the genus Duttaphrynus. A. Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic tree based on 5,737 bp DNA comprising nine mitochondrial gene regions and two nuclear genes, showing phylogenetic relationships between the major species-level lineages. Values above and below the branches indicate Bayesian Posterior Probabilities (BPP) and RAxML Bootstrap Support (BS), respectively; B. Maximum Likelihood barcoding tree based on 524 bp of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA sequences. BPP and BS support values are indicated above and below the branches, respectively. Coloured vertical bars outside the terminal node labels indicate putative species delimited in the bPTP analysis; C. Median-Joining haplotype network based on 42 haplotypes recovered from 133 sequences of the 16S gene (420 bp). Size of the coloured circles is proportional to the number of haplotypes; black circles indicate median vectors; each branch represents a single mutation step; additional mutational steps are indicated by values in parentheses; photo credits: D. crocus (Guinevere O. U. Wogan), D. olivaceus (Parham Beyhaghi), and D. dhufarensis (Todd W. Pierson).
Figure 2 from: Bisht K, Garg S, Sarmah ANDA, Sengupta S, Biju SD (2021) Lost, forgotten, and overlooked: systematic reassessment of two lesser-known toad species (Anura, Bufonidae) from Peninsular India and another wide-ranging northern species. Zoosystematics and Evolution 97(2): 451-470. https://doi.org/10.3897/zse.97.61770
Figure 2 Topotype of Duttaphrynus brevirostris (Rao, 1937), topotype of D. peninsularis (Rao, 1920), and referred specimens of D. stomaticus (Lütken, 1864) in life. A.Duttaphrynus brevirostris (BNHS 6126) from Kempholey Ghat region in Sakleshpur taluk. B.Duttaphrynus peninsularis (SDBDU 6370) from Wattakolli. C–F.Duttaphrynus stomaticus: C.SDBDU 2015.2909 from Assam; D.SDBDU 2012.2170 from Rajasthan; E.SDBDU 2012.2172 from Delhi; and F.SDBDU 2012.2268 from Bihar.
Supplementary material 1 from: Bisht K, Garg S, Sarmah ANDA, Sengupta S, Biju SD (2021) Lost, forgotten, and overlooked: systematic reassessment of two lesser-known toad species (Anura, Bufonidae) from Peninsular India and another wide-ranging northern species. Zoosystematics and Evolution 97(2): 451-470. https://doi.org/10.3897/zse.97.61770
Supplementary tables S1–S5
Figure 5 from: Bisht K, Garg S, Sarmah ANDA, Sengupta S, Biju SD (2021) Lost, forgotten, and overlooked: systematic reassessment of two lesser-known toad species (Anura, Bufonidae) from Peninsular India and another wide-ranging northern species. Zoosystematics and Evolution 97(2): 451-470. https://doi.org/10.3897/zse.97.61770
Figure 5 Morphometric analyses for Indian members of the Duttaphrynus stomaticus group. A. Principal component analysis showing distinct clusters for three species in a scatter plot of the first two principal components; B–G. Box and whiskers plots depicting the most significant diagnostic characters for the three species.
Figure 1 from: Bisht K, Garg S, Sarmah ANDA, Sengupta S, Biju SD (2021) Lost, forgotten, and overlooked: systematic reassessment of two lesser-known toad species (Anura, Bufonidae) from Peninsular India and another wide-ranging northern species. Zoosystematics and Evolution 97(2): 451-470. https://doi.org/10.3897/zse.97.61770
Figure 1 Morphological characters for topotype of Duttaphrynus brevirostris (Rao, 1937), topotype of D. peninsularis (Rao, 1920), and syntype of D. stomaticus (Lütken, 1864) in preservation. A–G.Duttaphrynus brevirostris, BNHS 6126: A. Dorsal view; B. Ventral view; C. Lateral view of head; D. Dorsal view of hand showing brown nuptial pad on fingers I, II, and III; E. Ventral view of hand; F. Ventral view of foot; G. Schematic illustration of webbing on foot. H–N.Duttaphrynus peninsularis: H. Holotype, ZSIC 19176; I–N. Topotype, SDBDU 6370: I. Dorsal view; J. Ventral view; K. Lateral view of head; L. Ventral view of hand; M. Ventral view of foot; N. Schematic illustration of webbing on foot. O–T.Duttaphrynus stomaticus, ZMUC 131137 (ex 196): O. Dorsal view; P. Ventral view; Q. Lateral view of head; R. Ventral view of hand; S. Ventral view of foot; T. Schematic illustration of webbing on foot.
Figure 4 from: Bisht K, Garg S, Sarmah ANDA, Sengupta S, Biju SD (2021) Lost, forgotten, and overlooked: systematic reassessment of two lesser-known toad species (Anura, Bufonidae) from Peninsular India and another wide-ranging northern species. Zoosystematics and Evolution 97(2): 451-470. https://doi.org/10.3897/zse.97.61770
Figure 4 Geographical distribution of Duttaphrynus brevirostris (dark grey), D. peninsularis (blue), and D. stomaticus (orange).
Figure 8 from: Guayasamin J, Paez D, Yanez M (2011) A new species of Andean toad (Bufonidae, Osornophryne) discovered using molecular and morphological data, with a taxonomic key for the genus. ZooKeys 108: 73-97. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.108.1129
Figure 8 - Osteology of hand and foot of Osornophryne simpsoni sp. n. in ventral view; adult male, QCAZ 45899.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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International Brain Laboratory public data
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OpenNeuro
OpenNeuro is a free, open platform for sharing neuroimaging datasets, with public search, dataset pages, and download paths for web, S3, DataLad, and the OpenNeuro CLI.