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189 results for “sexual traits”
Data from: Sexual dimorphism and sex-biased sampling influence analyses of trait evolution and diversity in a major songbird clade
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Data: Sexual selection increased offspring production via evolution of male and female traits
<p><span>Phenotypic evolution driven by sexual selection can impact the fitness of individuals and thus population performance through multiple mechanisms, but it is un</span><span>resolved</span><span> how and when sexual selection affects offspring production by females.</span>We examined the effects of sexual selection on offspring production by females using replicated experimental evolutionary lines of <i>Callosobruchus chinensis</i> that were kept under polygamy (with sexual selection) or monogamy (without sexual selection) for 21 generations. We found that polygamous-line pairs produced more offspring than monogamous-line pairs, because polygamous-line beetles evolved to be larger than monogamous-line beetles, and larger females were more fecund. Egg hatchability did not differ between polygamous- and monogamous-line pairs, as a result of the positive and negative effects of sexual selection cancelling out. When mated with an individual from a common tester line, both polygamous-line females and males showed higher hatchability in resultant eggs than monogamous ones. Further, cohabitation with a male reduced egg hatchability, and this effect was more pronounced in polygamous- than in monogamous-line males. These results demonstrate multiple mechanisms by which sexual selection affects female fitness, with the net effect being positive. Analyses of how development time, body size and male genital morphology were influenced by selection regime suggest that these results arose from both evolution via good-gene processes and sexually antagonistic selection. Our results are also consistent with the hypothesis that the fitness consequences of sexual selection for females are dependent on the evolutionary history of the population.</p>
Contrasting patterns of sexually selected traits in Mediterranean and continental populations of European mouflon
<p>The expression of sexually selected traits in highly dimorphic ungulates may be influenced by environmental quality. Variations in habitat conditions can impose different constraints on the allocation of energy resources to male life-history traits, and possibly alter the female preferences for specific features. Here, we compared the horn growth patterns in male European mouflon Ovis aries musimon living in different habitats (Mediterranean vs. continental) but sharing a common genetic origin. We hypothesized that the expression of sexually selected traits such as horn development should be promoted in more favourable habitat conditions (i.e., Mediterranean). Using linear mixed models on data retrieved from individuals harvested under the same hunting regime, we found longer horns and greater individual variance in horn segment length in the Mediterranean population than in the continental one. Furthermore, Mediterranean rams showed no evidence of compensatory horn growth, as opposed to the continental rams. Unexpectedly, horn base circumference was greater in the continental habitat than in the Mediterranean one. The overall results suggest different patterns of investment in horns in the two populations, with seemingly stronger pressure and consequences of sexual selection on mouflon rams living in more favourable environments. Although the role of hunters' selectivity cannot be excluded a priori, our data suggest that the differences in the expression of sexually selected traits in our study populations may be influenced by environmental conditions. Because sexual selection can impose substantial fitness costs on individuals, further investigations on the trade-offs between reproduction and survival would improve our understanding of the dynamics of mouflon populations living in different environmental conditions.</p>
Data from: Male-limited secondary sexual trait interacts with environment in determining female fitness
Selection for secondary sexual traits (SSTs) elaboration may increase intralocus sexual conflict over the optimal values of traits expressed from shared genomes. This conflict can reduce female fitness, and the resulting gender load can be exacerbated by environmental stress, with consequences for a population's ability to adapt to novel environments. However, how the evolution of SSTs interacts with environment in determining female fitness is not well understood. Here, we investigated this question using replicate lines of bulb mites selected for increased or decreased prevalence of a male SST—thickened legs used as weapons. The fitness of females from these lines was measured at a temperature to which the mites were adapted (24°C), as well as at two novel temperatures: 18°C and 28°C. We found the prevalence of the SST interacted with temperature in determining female fecundity. At 28°C, females from populations with high SST prevalence were less fecund than females from populations in which the SST was rare, but the reverse was true at 18°C. Thus, a novel environment does not universally depress female fitness more in populations with a high degree of sexually selected dimorphism. We discuss possible consequences of the interaction we detected for adaptation to novel environments.
Data from: Temporally variable multivariate sexual selection on sexually dimorphic traits in a wild insect population
A widely held view is that the strength and form of natural selection varies in time and space in response to varying ecological forces; however, adequate quantitative evaluations of this are relatively scarce. In this study, we measured the strength and form of sexual selection acting on a suite of male morphological traits in a wild ambush bug (Phymata americana) population at 10 sampling dates over 2 years. We tested the prediction that the strength and direction of sexual selection would be associated with one or more important ecological variables. We found that patterns of multivariate selection varied considerably over time, and even within a season. Yet, for this population, a sexually dimorphic color pattern trait was consistently a target of directional selection. The strength of sexual selection on this trait was related to both sex ratio and density, which is consistent with the idea that ecological factors can play an important role in generating patterns of sexual selection. We also demonstrate that the median strength of linear selection obtained from replicated cross‐sectional methods was qualitatively similar to the estimates obtained from longitudinal methods, providing multiple lines of evidence that the evolution of sexual color dimorphism in this species is attributable to sexual selection.
Data from: Multivariate sexual selection on ejaculate traits under sperm competition
The widespread prevalence of sperm competition means that ejaculates face intense sexual selection. However, prior investigations of sexual selection on gametes have been hampered by two difficulties: (1) deriving estimates of relative fitness from sperm competition trials that are comparable across rival male and female genotypes; and (2) obtaining measures of competitive fertilization success that are not confounded by post-zygotic effects. Here, we exploit the experimental tractability of a broadcast spawning marine invertebrate to overcome these challenges and characterise multivariate sexual selection on sperm traits when multiple ejaculates compete. In multi-male spawning events, we tracked real-time success of sperm using fluorescent tags that are visible inside fertilized eggs. We then used multivariate selection analyses to identify patterns of linear and non-linear sexual selection on multiple sperm morphology and motility traits. Specifically, we found non-linear selection against divergent combinations of sperm length, velocity and swimming path linearity. These patterns likely reflect the way different swimming strategies allow sperm to locate and track eggs. Our results demonstrate that there are overall patterns of selection on ejaculates across a biologically realistic range of ejaculate-ejaculate and ejaculate-female interactions; therefore, there is the potential for adaptive evolution of ejaculate traits under sperm competition.
Data from: Contemporary sexual selection does not explain variation in male display traits among populations
Sexual selection is widely hypothesized to facilitate the evolution of reproductive isolation through divergence in sexual traits and sexual trait preferences. However, direct evidence of divergent sexual selection causing intraspecific trait divergence remains limited. Using the wolf spider Schizocosa crassipes, we characterized patterns of female mate choice within and among geographic locations and related those patterns to geographic variation in male display traits to test whether divergent sexual selection caused by mate choice explains intraspecific trait variation. We found evidence of phenotypic selection on male behavior arising from female mate choice, but no evidence that selection varied among locations. Only those suites of morphological and behavioral traits that did not influence mate choice varied geographically. These results are inconsistent with ongoing divergent sexual selection underlying the observed intraspecific divergence in male display traits. These findings align with theory on the potentially restrictive conditions under which divergent sexual selection may persist, and suggest that long-term studies capable of detecting periodic or transient divergent sexual selection will be critical to rigorously assess the relative importance of divergent sexual selection in intraspecific trait divergence.
Data from: Ontogenetic stage-specific quantitative trait loci contribute to divergence in developmental trajectories of sexually dimorphic fins between medaka populations
Sexual dimorphism can evolve when males and females differ in phenotypic optima. Genetic constraints can, however, limit the evolution of sexual dimorphism. One possible constraint is derived from alleles expressed in both sexes. Because males and females share most of their genome, shared alleles with different fitness effects between sexes are faced with intralocus sexual conflict. Another potential constraint is derived from genetic correlations between developmental stages. Sexually dimorphic traits are often favoured at adult stages, but selected against as juvenile, so developmental decoupling of traits between ontogenetic stages may be necessary for the evolution of sexual dimorphism in adults. Resolving intralocus conflicts between sexes and ages is therefore a key to the evolution of age-specific expression of sexual dimorphism. We investigated the genetic architecture of divergence in the ontogeny of sexual dimorphism between two populations of the Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) that differ in the magnitude of dimorphism in anal and dorsal fin length. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping revealed that few QTL had consistent effects throughout ontogenetic stages and the majority of QTL change the sizes and directions of effects on fin growth rates during ontogeny. We also found that most QTL were sex-specific, suggesting that intralocus sexual conflict is almost resolved. Our results indicate that sex- and age-specific QTL enable the populations to achieve optimal developmental trajectories of sexually dimorphic traits in response to complex natural and sexual selection.
Data from: Neutral and selection-driven decay of sexual traits in asexual stick insects
Environmental shifts and lifestyle changes may result in formerly adaptive traits becoming non-functional or maladaptive. The subsequent decay of such traits highlights the importance of natural selection for adaptations, yet its causes have rarely been investigated. To study the fate of formerly adaptive traits after lifestyle changes, we evaluated sexual traits in five independently derived asexual lineages, including traits that are specific to males and therefore not exposed to selection. At least four of the asexual lineages retained the capacity to produce males that display normal courtship behaviours and are able to fertilize eggs of females from related sexual species. The maintenance of male traits may stem from pleiotropy, or from these traits only regressing via drift, which may require millions of years to generate phenotypic effects. By contrast, we found parallel decay of sexual traits in females. Asexual females produced altered airborne and contact signals, had modified sperm storage organs, and lost the ability to fertilize their eggs, impeding reversals to sexual reproduction. Female sexual traits were decayed even in recently derived asexuals, suggesting that trait changes following the evolution of asexuality, when they occur, proceed rapidly and are driven by selective processes rather than drift.
Data from: Are sexually selected traits affected by a poor environment early in life?
Background: Challenging conditions experienced early in life, such as a restricted diet, can detrimentally affect key life-history traits. Individuals can reduce these costs by delaying their sexual maturation, albeit at the price of the later onset of breeding, to eventually reach the same adult size as individuals that grow up in a benevolent environment. Delayed maturation can, however, still lead to other detrimental morphological and physiological changes that become apparent later in adulthood (e.g. shorter lifespan, faster senescence). In general, research focuses on the naturally selected costs of a poor early diet. In mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki), males with limited food intake early in life delay maturation to reach a similar adult body size to their well-fed counterparts ('catch-up growth'). Here we tested whether a poor early diet is costly due to the reduced expression of sexually selected male characters, namely genital size and ejaculate traits. Results: We found that a male's diet early in life significantly influenced his sperm reserves and sperm replenishment rate. Shortly after maturation males with a restricted early diet had significantly lower sperm reserves and slower replenishment rates than control diet males, but this dietary difference was no longer detectable in older males. Conclusions: Although delaying maturation to reach the same body size as well fed juveniles can ameliorate some costs of a poor start in life, our findings suggest that costs might still arise because of sexual selection against these males. It should be noted, however, that the observed effects are modest (Hedges' g = 0.20–0.36), and the assumption that lower sperm production translates into a decline in fitness under sperm competition remains unconfirmed.
Data from: Latitudinal variation and coevolutionary diversification of sexually dimorphic traits in the false blister beetle Oedemera sexualis
Sexual traits are subject to evolutionary forces that maximize reproductive benefits and minimize survival costs, both of which can depend on environmental conditions. Latitude explains substantial variation in environmental conditions. However, little is known about the relationship between sexual trait variation and latitude, although body size often correlates with latitude. We examined latitudinal variation in male and female sexual traits in 22 populations of the false blister beetle Oedemera sexualis in the Japanese Archipelago. Males possess massive hind legs that function as a female‐grasping apparatus, while females possess slender hind legs that are used to dislodge mounting males. Morphometric analyses revealed that male and female body size (elytron length), length and width of the hind femur and tibia, and allometric slopes of these four hind leg dimensions differed significantly among populations. Of these, three traits showed latitudinal variation, namely, male hind femur was stouter; female hind tibia was slenderer, and female body was smaller at lower latitudes than at higher latitudes. Hind leg sizes and shapes, as measured by principal component analysis of these four hind leg dimensions in each sex, covaried significantly between sexes, suggesting coevolutionary diversification in sexual traits. Covariation between sexes was weaker when variation in these traits with latitude was removed. These results suggest that coevolutionary diversification between male and female sexual traits is mediated by environmental conditions that vary with latitude.
Data from: Sexually antagonistic association between paternal phenotype and offspring viability reinforces total selection on a sexually selected trait
The evolution of conspicuous sexually selected traits, such as horns or antlers, has fascinated biologists for more than a century. Elaborate traits can only evolve if they substantially increase reproduction, because they probably incur survival costs to the bearer. Total selection on these traits, however, includes sexual selection on sires and viability selection on offspring and can be influenced by changes in each of these components. Non-random associations between paternal phenotype and offspring viability may thus affect total selection on sexually selected traits. Long-term data on wild bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) provide the first evidence in nature that association between paternal phenotype and lamb viability strengthens total selection on horn size of adult rams, a sexually selected trait. The association of paternal horn length and offspring viability was sexually antagonistic: long-horned males sired sons with high viability but daughters of low viability. These results shed new light on the evolutionary dynamics of an iconic sexually selected trait and have important implications for sustainable wildlife management.
Data from: Population density and structure drive differential investment in pre- and postmating sexual traits in frogs
Sexual selection theory predicts a trade-off between premating (ornaments and armaments) and postmating (testes and ejaculates) sexual traits, assuming that growing and maintaining these traits is costly and that total reproductive investments are limited. The number of males in competition, the reproductive gains from investing in premating sexual traits, and the level of sperm competition are all predicted to influence how males allocate their finite resources to these traits. Yet, empirical examination of these predictions is currently scarce. Here, we studied relative expenditure on pre- and postmating sexual traits among frog species varying in their population density, operational sex ratio and the number of competing males for each clutch of eggs. We found that the intensifying struggle to monopolize fertilizations as more and more males clasp the same female to fertilize her eggs shifts male reproductive investment toward sperm production and away from male weaponry. This shift, which is mediated by population density and the associated level of male–male competition, likely also explains the trade-off between pre- and postmating sexual traits in our much broader sample of anuran species. Our results highlight the power of such a multi-level approach in resolving the evolution of traits and allocation trade-offs.
Data from: Stronger convex (stabilizing) selection on homologous sexual display traits in females than in males: a multipopulation comparison in Drosophila serrata
Mutual mate choice for homologous sexual display traits has been demonstrated in Mutual mate choice for homologous sexual display traits has been demonstrated in several recent studies yet little attention has been given to quantitative comparison of the strength and form of mate preferences between the sexes. Such comparisons may provide important insight into the evolution of mate choice for honest signals. In particular, because females generally provide the majority of resources for initial offspring development, female displays may trade-off with fecundity, causing preference evolution to differ between the sexes. Recent theory suggests that adaptive male preferences for honest displays in females are possible under certain conditions and may result in preferences that are convex (i.e. stabilizing) in form. We compared sexual selection on a suite of contact pheromones arising from mutual mate choice using nine separate geographic populations of Drosophila serrata. We show that the convex selection is stronger on females than on males overall in these populations, and that convex selection is the predominate form of nonlinear selection on females but not males.
Data from: An experimental evaluation of traits that influence the sexual behaviour of pollinators in sexually deceptive orchids
Pollination by sexual deception of male insects is perhaps one of the most remarkable cases of mimicry in the plant kingdom. However, understanding the influence of floral traits on pollinator behaviour in sexually deceptive orchids is challenging, due to the risk of confounding changes in floral odour when manipulating morphology. Here, we investigated the floral traits influencing the sexual response of male Zaspilothynnus nigripes (Tiphiidae) wasps, a pollinator of two distantly related sexually deceptive orchids with contrasting floral architecture, Caladenia pectinata and Drakaea livida. In D. livida the chemical sexual attractant is emitted from the labellum, while in C. pectinata it is produced from the distal sepal tips, allowing manipulative experiments. When controlling for visual cues there was no difference in long distance attraction, though the floral odour of D. livida induced copulation more frequently than that of C. pectinata. The role of colour in pollinator sexual attraction was equivocal, indicating that colour may not be a strong constraint on the initial evolution of sexual deception. The frequency of wasp visitors landing on C. pectinata decreased when the amount of floral odour was reduced, but attempted copulation rates were enhanced when the source of floral odour was associated with the labellum. These latter variables may represent axes of selection that operate across many sexually deceptive species. Nonetheless, the observed variation in floral traits suggests flexibility in how sexual deception can be achieved.
Data from: The interplay between local ecology, divergent selection and genetic drift in population divergence of a sexually antagonistic female trait
Genetically polymorphic species offer the possibility to study maintenance of genetic variation and the potential role for genetic drift in population divergence. Indirect inference of the selection regimes operating on polymorphic traits can be achieved by comparing population divergence in neutral genetic markers with population divergence in trait frequencies. Such an approach could further be combined with ecological data to better understand agents of selection. Here, we infer the selective regimes acting on a polymorphic mating trait in an insect group; the dorsal structures (either rough or smooth) of female diving beetles. Our recent work suggests that the rough structures have a sexually antagonistic function in reducing male mating attempts. For two species (Dytiscus lapponicus and Graphoderus zonatus), we could not reject genetic drift as an explanation for population divergence in morph frequencies, while for the third (Hygrotus impressopunctatus) we found that divergent selection pulls morph frequencies apart across populations. Furthermore, population morph frequencies in H. impressopunctatus were significantly related to local bioclimatic factors, providing an additional line of evidence for local adaptation in this species. These data therefore suggest that local ecological factors and sexual conflict interact over larger spatial scales to shape population divergence in the polymorphism.
Data from: The design of a beautiful weapon: compensation for opposing sexual selection on a trait with two functions
Male fiddler crabs, genus Uca, have one greatly enlarged claw with which they court females and threaten and fight other males. Longer claws are more effective signals but are thought to be less effective weapons because the relative closing force at the tip of the claw decreases with claw length. We studied claw morphology and fighting in Uca terpsichores and Uca beebei and found a mechanism that may resolve opposing selection for signaling and fighting ability. When males fought they delivered gripping forces not at the tips but at the tubercles on the inner margins of their claws' fingers. As claws grow, these tubercles remain relatively close to the apex of the gape. Consequently, the mechanical advantage that governs the forces that can be delivered at these tubercles decreases only slightly with increasing claw length allowing the claw to be an effective signal and a powerful weapon. Animal weapons are exceptionally diverse in form and detail of armature and the causes of this diversity are poorly understood. We suggest that the designs of weapons may often reflect compensatory patterns of growth and placement of armature that enhances the weapon's overall utility for multiple uses in competition for mates.
Data from: Condition-dependent trade-offs between sexual traits, body condition and immunity: the effect of novel habitats
Background: The optimal allocation of resources to sexual signals and other life history traits is usually dependent on an individual's condition, while variation in the expression of sexual traits across environments depends on the combined effects of local adaptation, mean condition, and phenotypic responses to environment-specific cues that affect resource allocation. A clear contrast can often be drawn between natural habitats and novel habitats, such as forest plantations and urban areas. In some species, males seem to change their sexual signals in these novel environments, but why this occurs and how it affects signal reliability is still poorly understood. Results: The relative size of sexual traits and level of immune responses were significantly lower for male palmate newts Lissotriton helveticus caught in pine and eucalyptus plantations compared to those caught in native forests, but there was no habitat-dependent difference in body condition (n= 18 sites, 382 males). The reliability with which sexual traits signalled body condition and immune responses was the same in all three habitats. Finally, we conducted a mesocosm experiment in which males were maintained in pine, eucalypt or oak infused water for 21 days. Males in plantation-like water (pine or eucalypt) showed significantly lower immune responses but no change in body condition. This matches the pattern seen for field-caught males. Unlike field-caught males, however, there was no relationship between water type and relative sexual trait size. Conclusions: Pine and eucalyptus plantations are likely to be detrimental to male palmate newt because they are associated with reduced immune function and smaller sexual traits. This could be because ecological aspects of these novel habitats, such as high water turbidity or changes in male-male competition, drive selection for reduced investment into sexual traits. However, it is more probable that there are differences in the ease of acquisition, hence optimal allocation, of resources among habitats. Our mesocosm experiment also provides some evidence that water toxicity is a causal factor. Our findings offer insights into how plantations affect amphibian life histories, and how novel habitats might generate long-term selection for new resource allocation strategies in native species.
Genetic variation for sexual dimorphism in developmental traits in Drosophila melanogaster
<p>Sexual dimorphism in traits of insects during the developmental stages could potentially be the direct or indirect result of sex-specific selection provided that genetic variation for sexual dimorphism is present. We investigated genetic variation in sexual dimorphism in a set of <em>Drosophila melanogaster</em> inbred lines for two traits: egg to adult development time and pupation site preference. We observed considerable genetic variation in sexual dimorphism among lines in both traits. The sexual dimorphic patterns remained relatively consistent across multiple trials, despite both traits being sensitive to environmental conditions. Additionally, we measured two sexually dimorphic adult morphological traits in six sampled lines and investigated correlations in the sexual dimorphism patterns with the two developmental traits. The abundance of genetic variation in sexual dimorphism for <em>D. melanogaster </em>developmental traits demonstrated in this study provides evidence for a high degree of evolvability of sex differences in pre-adult traits in natural populations.</p>
Data and code for: Partitioning variance in a signaling trade-off under sexual selection reveals among-individual covariance in trait allocation
<p>Understanding the evolution of traits subject to trade-offs is challenging because phenotypes can (co)vary at both the among- and within-individual levels. Among-individual covariation indicates consistent, possibly genetic, differences in how individuals resolve the trade-off, while within-individual covariation indicates trait plasticity. There is also the potential for consistent among-individual differences in behavioral plasticity, although this has rarely been investigated. We studied the sources of (co)variance in two characteristics of an acoustic advertisement signal that trade off with one another and are under sexual selection in the gray treefrog, <em>Hyla chrysoscelis</em>: call duration and call rate. We recorded males on multiple nights calling spontaneously and in response to playbacks simulating different competition levels. Call duration, call rate, and their product, call effort, were all repeatable both within and across social contexts. Call duration and call rate covaried negatively, and the largest covariance was at the among-individual level. There was extensive plasticity in calling with changes in social competition, and we found some evidence for among-individual variance in call rate plasticity. The significant negative among-individual covariance in trait values is perpendicular to the primary direction of sexual selection in this species, indicating potential limits on the response to selection.</p>
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