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Figure 7. Interactions between tarantulas and ants. A in An extensive review of mutualistic and similar ecological associations involving tarantulas (Araneae: Theraphosidae), with a new hypothesis on the evolution of their hirsuteness

Figure 7. Interactions between tarantulas and ants. A. Avicularia purpurea (marked with an arrow) in its arboreal retreat, living with a colony of an unidentified species of Camponotus, Tena, Napo, Ecuador. B. Tapinauchenius cupreus living with Camponotus femoratus in a tree cavity, Río Momón, Loreto, Peru. C. Stichoplastoris cf. obelix, spiderlings, and Labidus coecus ants not being interested in the spiders, Reserva Biológica Tirimbina, Heredia Province, Costa Rica. D. Same, spiderlings gathered at the maternal burrow entrance, with ants moving close to the entrance. E. Avicularia hirschii displaying an escape strategy against Labidus ants, Madre de Dios, Peru. F. Tapinauchenius plumipes caught, killed and carved up by the army ants Eciton burchellii, Montsinéry-Tonnegrande Commune, French Guiana. D reproduced from Lapinski (2019). Photo credits: Rick C. West (A, B, F), Witold Lapinski (C, D), and Emanuele Biggi (E).

Figure 11. Leg IV in An extensive review of mutualistic and similar ecological associations involving tarantulas (Araneae: Theraphosidae), with a new hypothesis on the evolution of their hirsuteness

Figure 11. Leg IV (prolateral view) of a female Nhandu tripepii (Dresco, 1984) from Belém, Pará, Brazil. Photo credit: Rick C. West.

Figure 1 in An extensive review of mutualistic and similar ecological associations involving tarantulas (Araneae: Theraphosidae), with a new hypothesis on the evolution of their hirsuteness

Figure 1. Geographic distribution of reported cases of associations between tarantulas and anurans. Red dots: literature records; yellow dots: new records.

Table 3 in An extensive review of mutualistic and similar ecological associations involving tarantulas (Araneae: Theraphosidae), with a new hypothesis on the evolution of their hirsuteness

Table 3. (Continued).<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Theraphosid</th><th></th><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>Theraphosid species</th><td>subfamily</td><td>Associated species</td><td>Locality</td><td>Source</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>R.C. West, W.W. Lamar</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th>Phlogiellus longipalpus</th><td>Selenocosmiinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>Sai Thong Watthana, Kamphaengphet Province,</td><td>Chomphuphuang et al.</td></tr><tr><th>Chomphuphuang et al., 2017</th><td></td><td></td><td>Thailand</td><td>(2017)</td></tr><tr><th>Phlogiellus sp.</th><td>Selenocosmiinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>Khao Pu–Khao Ya National Park, Si Banphot District,</td><td>[10]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td>Phatthalung, Thailand</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Plesiophrictus sp.</th><td>Ischnocolinae</td><td>Anoplolepis gracilipes F. Smith, 1857</td><td>Peringottukurissi South, Chulanur, Kerala, India</td><td>[11]</td></tr><tr><th>Plesiophrictus sp.</th><td>Ischnocolinae</td><td>Anoplolepis gracilipes F. Smith, 1857</td><td>Peringottukurissi South, Chulanur, Kerala, India</td><td>[12]</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Stichoplastoris cf. obelix (Valerio, 1980) Theraphosinae</th><td>Labidus coecus (Latreille, 1802)</td><td>Reserva Biológica Tirimbina, Heredia Province, Costa</td><td>Lapinski (2019)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td>Rica</td><td>(Figure 7C, D)</td></tr><tr><th>Tapinauchenius cupreus Schmidt and</th><td>Psalmopoeinae</td><td>Camponotus femoratus (Fabricius, 1804)</td><td>Ecuador; Peru</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th>Bauer, 1996</th><td></td><td>Pseudomyrex (?) sp.</td><td></td><td>(Figure 7B)</td></tr><tr><th>Tapinauchenius plumipes (C.L. Koch,</th><td>Psalmopoeinae</td><td>Camponotus femoratus (Fabricius, 1804)</td><td>El Triunfo, Bolívar, Venezuela</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">1842)</th></tr><tr><th>Tapinauchenius sp.</th><td>Psalmopoeinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>Ecuador</td><td>Hirschi (1991)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">Blattodea: Isoptera</th></tr><tr><th>Acanthoscurria gomesiana Mello-</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>São Paulo, Brazil</td><td>Macedo et al. (2021)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">Leitão, 1923</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Acanthoscurria paulensis Mello-Leitão, Theraphosinae</th><td>Armitermes sp. (Nasutitermitidae)</td><td>Federal District, Brazil</td><td>Lourenço (1978)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">1923</th></tr><tr><th>Acanthoscurria sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Cornitermes cumulans (Kollar, 1832)</td><td>Emas National Park, Mineiros, Goiás, Brazil</td><td>Costa et al. (2009)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>(Termitidae)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Avicularia juruensis Mello-Leitão, 1923 Aviculariinae</th><td>Unidentified</td><td>nr. Iquitos, Loreto, Peru</td><td>[13] (Figure 8A)</td></tr><tr><th>Brachionopus sp.</th><td>Harpactirinae</td><td>Trinervitermes sp. (Termitidae)</td><td>Ezemvelo Nature Reserve, Tshwane, Gauteng</td><td>[14] (Figure 8F)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td>Province, South Africa</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Harpactira marksi Purcell, 1902</th><td>Harpactirinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>Paarl, Western Cape, South Africa</td><td>[15]</td></tr><tr><th>Nhandu coloratovillosus (Schmidt,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>São Geraldo do Araguaia, Pará, Brazil</td><td>[16] (Figure 8C)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">1998)</th></tr><tr><th>Nhandu coloratovillosus (Schmidt,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>Peixe, Tocantins, Brazil</td><td>D. Fenolio (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>1998)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(Figure 8D)</td></tr><tr><th>Nesiergus insulanus Simon, 1903</th><td>Ischnocolinae</td><td>Kalotermitidae</td><td>Frégate Island, Seychelles</td><td>Canning et al. (2014)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(Figure 9A–F)</td></tr><tr><th>Phlogiellus longipalpus</th><td>Selenocosmiinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>Sai Thong Watthana, Kamphaengphet Province,</td><td>Chomphuphuang et al.</td></tr><tr><th>Chomphuphuang et al., 2017</th><td></td><td></td><td>Thailand</td><td>(2017)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Psalmopoeus cambridgei Pocock, 1895 Psalmopoeinae</th><td>Unidentified</td><td>West Indies</td><td>S. Crews (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(Figure 8E)</td></tr></tbody></table>

Table 3. A in An extensive review of mutualistic and similar ecological associations involving tarantulas (Araneae: Theraphosidae), with a new hypothesis on the evolution of their hirsuteness

Table 3. A list of potentially mutualistic associations between theraphosids and non-anurans. [Web sources all accessed 13 May 2024]<table><thead><tr><th colspan="5">Theraphosid</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>Theraphosid species</th><td>subfamily</td><td>Associated species</td><td>Locality</td><td>Source</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">Squamata: Serpentes</th></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma armada (Chamberlin,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Rena dulcis Baird and Girard, 1853</td><td colspan="2">Emma Long Metropolitan Park, Travis County, Austin, [1]</td></tr><tr><th>1940)</th><td></td><td>(Leptotyphlopidae)</td><td>Texas, USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Brachypelma boehmei Schmidt and</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Sonora michoacanensis (Duges, 1884)</td><td>Guerrero State, Mexico</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th>Klaas, 1993</th><td></td><td>(Colubridae)</td><td></td><td>(Figure 6F)</td></tr><tr><th>Phoneyusa sp.</th><td>Eumenophorinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>Banalia, Democratic Republic of the Congo</td><td>[2]</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">Amblypygi</th></tr><tr><th>Megaphobema velvetosoma Schmidt,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>Parque Nacional Yasuní, Ecuador</td><td>[3] (Figure 6B)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">1995</th></tr><tr><th>Phormictopus cautus (Ausserer, 1875)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Phrynidae)</td><td>Vinales, Pinar del Río Province, Cuba</td><td>[4] (Figure 6D)</td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Phrynidae)</td><td>Panamá Oeste, Panama</td><td>[5] (Figure 6A)</td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Paraphrynus laevifrons (Pocock, 1894)</td><td>Santa María de Dota, San José Province, Costa Rica</td><td>[6] (Figure 6C)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>(Phrynidae)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Theraphosa blondi (Latreille, 1804)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Phrynidae)</td><td>Kaw Mountains, Roura District, French Guiana</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th>Tliltocatl vagans (Ausserer, 1875)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Phrynidae)</td><td>Belmopan, Belize</td><td>[7]</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">Opiliones</th></tr><tr><th>Brachypelma klaasi (Schmidt and</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Gonyleptidae)</td><td>El Tuito, Jalisco, Mexico</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">Krause, 1994)</th></tr><tr><th>Hapalotremus vilcanota Ferretti et al.,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Gonyleptidae)</td><td>Quispicanchi Province, Cusco Region, Peru</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">2018</th></tr><tr><th>Hapalotremus sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Gonyleptidae)</td><td>Quispicanchi Province, Cusco Region, Peru</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th>Ischnocolinae (undescribed)</th><td>Ischnocolinae</td><td>Unidentified (Gonyleptidae)</td><td>Quispicanchi Province, Cusco Region, Peru</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Gonyleptidae)</td><td>Río Tigre, Loreto, Peru</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Gonyleptidae)</td><td>Tambopata Reserve, Madre de Dios, Peru</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Phalangiidae)</td><td>Upala, Alajuela Province, Costa Rica</td><td>[8] (Figure 6E)</td></tr><tr><th>Theraphosa blondi (Latreille, 1804)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified (Gonyleptidae)</td><td>Kaw Mountains, Roura District, French Guiana</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th>Hymenoptera: Formicidae</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Acanthoscurria geniculata (C.L. Koch,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Solenopsis (?) sp.</td><td>Pará State, Brazil</td><td>R. Bertani (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">1841)</th></tr><tr><th>Avicularia avicularia (Linnaeus, 1758)</th><td>Aviculariinae</td><td>Camponotus femoratus (Fabricius, 1804)</td><td>El Triunfo, Boliva, Venezuela</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th>Avicularia purpurea Kirk, 1990</th><td>Aviculariinae</td><td>Camponotus femoratus (Fabricius, 1804)</td><td>Ecuador; Peru</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Pseudomyrex (?) sp.</td><td></td><td>(Figure 7A)</td></tr><tr><th>Megaphobema velvetosoma Schmidt,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Eciton burchellii Westwood, 1842</td><td>Río Nanay, Loreto, Peru</td><td>R.C. West (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="5">1995</th></tr><tr><th>Poecilotheria rufilata Pocock, 1899</th><td>Poecilotheriinae</td><td>Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius, 1775</td><td>Pulliyil, Kerala, India</td><td>[9]</td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Atta sexdens (Linnaeus, 1758)</td><td>Río Tigre, Loreto, Peru</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Theraphosid species</th><td>subfamily</td><td>Associated species</td><td>Locality</td><td>Source</td></tr><tr><th>Psalmopoeus pulcher Petrunkevitch,</th><td>Psalmopoeinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>San José Island, Panama</td><td>Cifuentes and Bertani</td></tr><tr><th>1925</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(2022)</td></tr><tr><th>Psalmopoeus pulcher Petrunkevitch,</th><td>Psalmopoeinae</td><td>Nasutitermes corniger (Motschulsky, 1855)</td><td>Cocobolo National Reserve, Panama</td><td>[17]</td></tr><tr><th>1925</th><td></td><td>(Termitidae)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Umbyquyra gurleyi Sherwood and</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>Goiás Parque Nacional Das Emas, nr. Mineiros, Brazil</td><td>Sherwood and Gabriel</td></tr><tr><th>Gabriel, 2020</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(2020)</td></tr><tr><th>Vitalius dubius (Mello-Leitão, 1923)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>Dona Amélia Farm, Santo Antônio de Possee, São</td><td>I. Sazima (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td>Paulo, Brazil</td><td>(Figure 8B)</td></tr><tr><th>Unidentified</th><td>Selenocosmiinae</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>6 km E of Duri-Kandis, Sumatra, Indonesia</td><td>Hood et al. (2020)</td></tr></tbody></table>[1] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/24310668, [2] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/112637602, [3] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/183754892, [4] https://www.ina turalist.org/observations/20270936, [5] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/17577628, [6] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/30022408, [7] https://www.inaturalist.org/observa tions/120033087, [8] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/201566087, [9] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/1113324, [10] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/192056961, [11] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/195352827, [12] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/195657003, [13] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/132441110, [14] https:// www.inaturalist.org/observations/198061382, [15] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/213491484, [16] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/183223392, [17] https://www.inatural ist.org/observations/6736913.

Table 1. A in An extensive review of mutualistic and similar ecological associations involving tarantulas (Araneae: Theraphosidae), with a new hypothesis on the evolution of their hirsuteness

Table 1. A list of mutualistic associations between theraphosids and anurans reported in the literature.<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Theraphosid</th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>Theraphosid species</th><td>subfamily</td><td>Anuran species</td><td>Anuran family</td><td>Locality</td><td>Reference</td></tr><tr><th>Acanthoscurria sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Leptodactylus bufonius Boulenger, 1894</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Yande Yari, Santa Cruz Department,</td><td>Schalk and Sezano (2014)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Bolivia</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Acanthoscurria sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Rhinella major (Müller and Hellmich,</td><td>Bufonidae</td><td>Yande Yari, Santa Cruz Department,</td><td>Schalk and Sezano (2014)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1936)</td><td></td><td>Bolivia</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell, 1856)</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Waggoner County, Oklahoma, USA</td><td>Dundee (1999)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="6">1852)</th></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell, 1856)</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Redbud Nature Reserve, Rogers County,</td><td>Yeary (1979); Dundee et al.</td></tr><tr><th>1852)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Oklahoma, USA</td><td>(2012)</td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell, 1856)</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Tulsa County, Oklahoma, USA</td><td>Blair (1936)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="6">1852)</th></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell, 1856)</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Fort Worth, Texas, USA</td><td>Hunt (1980)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="6">1852)</th></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne carolinensis (Holbrook,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Missouri,</td><td>Dundee et al. (2012)</td></tr><tr><th>1852)</th><td></td><td>1835)</td><td></td><td>Louisiana, USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell, 1856)</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>South Tulsa, Tulsa County, Oklahoma,</td><td>Mulvany (1983)</td></tr><tr><th>1852)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell, 1856)</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td colspan="2">Twin Hills, Okmulgee County, Oklahoma, Mulvany (1983)</td></tr><tr><th>1852)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma seemanni (F.O.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope, 1864)</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Tamarindo, Guanacaste Province, Costa</td><td>Hooijer (2005) (Figure 2B)</td></tr><tr><th>Pickard-Cambridge, 1897)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Rica</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope, 1864)</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td colspan="2">Cuitláhuac, Veracruz State and Temascal, Powell et al. (1984)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Oaxaca State, Mexico</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Brachypelma auratum Schmidt,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Craugastor occidentalis (Taylor, 1941)</td><td>Craugastoridae</td><td>Los Reyes, Michoacán State, Mexico</td><td>West (2005)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="6">1992</th></tr><tr><th>Ceratogyrus darlingi Pocock, 1897</th><td>Harpactirinae</td><td>Sclerophrys sp.</td><td>Bufonidae</td><td>Ingwelala Reserve, Hoedspruit, South</td><td>“Spider keeping frogs as pets”</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Africa</td><td>(2017) (Figure 4C)</td></tr><tr><th>Haploclastus kayi Gravely, 1915</th><td>Thrigmopoeinae</td><td>Microhyla sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Parambikulam Tiger Reserve, Kerala,</td><td>Siliwal and Ravichandran</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>India</td><td>(2008)</td></tr><tr><th>Nhandu carapoensis</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Chiasmocleis albopunctata (Boettger,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Balneario Pinamar, Paraguarí</td><td>Bascoulès and Smith (2021)</td></tr><tr><th>Lucas, 1983***</th><td></td><td>1885)</td><td></td><td>Department, Paraguay</td><td>(Figure 2C)</td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Undet.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Cerro Blanco, Guayaquil, Ecuador</td><td>Samadi (2009)</td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Chiasmocleis royi Peloso et al., 2014</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Los Amigos Biological Station, Madre de</td><td>von May et al. (2019)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Dios Region, Peru</td><td>(Figure 5A, D)</td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td colspan="2">Chiasmocleis ventrimaculata (Andersson, Microhylidae</td><td>Posada Amazonas Lodge, Tambopata,</td><td>Csakany (2003)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1945)</td><td></td><td>Madre de Dios Region, Peru</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp. *</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td></td><td>Microhylidae</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Table 1 in An extensive review of mutualistic and similar ecological associations involving tarantulas (Araneae: Theraphosidae), with a new hypothesis on the evolution of their hirsuteness

Table 1. (Continued).<table><thead><tr><th colspan="6">Theraphosid</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>Theraphosid species</th><td>subfamily</td><td>Anuran species</td><td>Anuran family</td><td>Locality</td><td>Reference</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td colspan="2">Chiasmocleis ventrimaculata (Andersson,</td><td>Tambopata Reserve, Madre de Dios</td><td>Cocroft and Hambler (1989)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1945)</td><td></td><td>Region, Peru</td><td>(Figures 2F, 5B)</td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp. *</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Hamptophryne boliviana (Parker, 1927)</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Bolivia; Peru</td><td>Miller (2003)</td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus jamacoaque</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope, 1864)</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Jama, Manabí Province, Ecuador</td><td>Sherwood et al. (2023)</td></tr><tr><th>Peñaherrera-R. et al., 2023</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Poecilotheria fasciata (Latreille,</th><td>Poecilotheriinae</td><td>Uperodon taprobanicus (Parker, 1934)</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Eluwankulama, Puttalam District, Sri</td><td>Karunarathna et al. (2012)</td></tr><tr><th>1804)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Lanka</td><td>(Figure 4E)</td></tr><tr><th>Poecilotheria hanumavilasumica</th><td>Poecilotheriinae</td><td>Uperodon taprobanicus (Parker, 1934)</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Rameshwaran Island, Tamil Nadu State,</td><td>Siliwal and Ravichandran</td></tr><tr><th>Smith, 2004</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>India</td><td>(2008)</td></tr><tr><th>Poecilotheria ornata Pocock, 1899</th><td>Poecilotheriinae</td><td>Uperodon nagaoi (Manamendra-</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Sri Lanka (multiple locations)</td><td>Karunarathna and</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Arachchi and Pethiyagoda, 2001)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Amarasinghe (2009)</td></tr><tr><th>Poecilotheria cf. subfusca Pocock,</th><td>Poecilotheriinae</td><td>Uperodon nagaoi (Manamendra-</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Sri Lanka (multiple locations)</td><td>Karunarathna and</td></tr><tr><th>1895</th><td></td><td>Arachchi and Pethiyagoda, 2001)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Amarasinghe (2009)</td></tr><tr><th>Pterinochilus sp.</th><td>Harpactirinae</td><td>Sclerophrys sp.</td><td>Bufonidae</td><td>Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe</td><td>“Spider keeping frogs as pets”</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(2017) (Figure 4B)</td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma rubronitens Ausserer,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope, 1864)</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>N of Panama City, Panama</td><td>Samadi (2014)</td></tr><tr><th>1875</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope, 1864)</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Veraguas Province, Panama</td><td>Samadi (2014)</td></tr><tr><th>Tliltocatl kahlenbergi (Rudloff,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope, 1864)</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Xalapa, Veracruz State, Mexico</td><td>Bokma (2006)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="6">2008)**</th></tr><tr><th>Theraphosid species</th><td>subfamily</td><td>Anuran species</td><td>Anuran family</td><td>Locality</td><td>Source</td></tr><tr><th>Acanthoscurria sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Chiasmocleis albopunctata</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Taunay, Aquidauana, Mato Grosso do Sul,</td><td>[1] (Figure 5C)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>(Boettger, 1885)</td><td></td><td>Brazil</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Acanthoscurria chacoana Brèthes,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Chiasmocleis albopunctata</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Poconé (Pantanal), Mato Grosso, Brazil</td><td>[2]</td></tr><tr><th>1909</th><td></td><td>(Boettger, 1885)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma anax (Chamberlin,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>McAllen, Texas, USA</td><td>N. Villareal (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="6">1940)</th></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma anax (Chamberlin,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Brownsville, Cameron County, Texas, USA</td><td>[3] (Figure 2E)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="6">1940)</th></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma anax (Chamberlin,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Texas, USA</td><td>C. Hamilton (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="6">1940)</th></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma anax (Chamberlin,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Texas, USA</td><td>B. Hendrixson (pers.</td></tr><tr><th>1940)</th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td>comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma anax (Chamberlin,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>La Victoria, Starr County, Texas, USA</td><td>O. Lnskns (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>1940)</th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma anax (Chamberlin,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Incilius nebulifer (Girard, 1854)</td><td>Bufonidae</td><td>Mission, Hildalgo County, Texas, USA</td><td>[4]</td></tr><tr><th colspan="6">1940)</th></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma armada</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>St. Edwards Park, Austin, Travis County,</td><td>[5] (Figure 3A)</td></tr><tr><th>(Chamberlin, 1940)</th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td>Texas, USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma armada</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>The Hills, Austin, Travis County, Texas, USA</td><td>[6]</td></tr><tr><th>(Chamberlin, 1940)</th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma armada</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Austin, Travis County, Texas, USA</td><td>[7]</td></tr><tr><th>(Chamberlin, 1940)</th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma cf. armada</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Burleson, Texas, USA</td><td>K. Myers (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>(Chamberlin, 1940)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(Figure 2A)</td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Austin, Texas, USA</td><td>A. Raciti (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Texas, USA</td><td>C. Hamilton (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Texas, USA</td><td>B. Hendrixson (pers.</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td>comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Nowata County, Oklahoma, USA</td><td>B. Molone (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne cf. olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Collin County, Texas, USA</td><td>W. Adams (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Double Helix Ranch, Pontotoc, Mason</td><td>[8] (Figure 2D)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td>County, Texas, USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Heyburn Lake WMA, Creek County,</td><td>S. Ridgway (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Oklahoma, USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Bartlesville, Washington County, Oklahoma,</td><td>J. Cherry (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td></td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Norman, Cleveland County, Oklahoma, USA</td><td>[9]</td></tr><tr><th>Theraphosid species</th><td>subfamily</td><td>Anuran species</td><td>Anuran family</td><td>Locality</td><td>Source</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Cedar Valley, Travis County, Texas, USA</td><td>[10]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Hill Country State Natural Reserve, Bandera</td><td>[11] (Figure 3C)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td>County, Texas, USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Cherokee Wildlife Management Area,</td><td>[12]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td>Muskogee County, Oklahoma, USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Woodcreek, Hays County, Texas, USA</td><td>[13]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Helotes, Bexar County, Texas, USA</td><td>[14] (Figure 3D)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Sandy Sanders State Wildlife Management</td><td>[15]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td>Area North, Beckham County, Oklahoma,</td><td></td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>15 km W of Blanco, Blanco County, Texas,</td><td>[16]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td>USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Dickson, Carter County, Oklahoma, USA</td><td>[17]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>10 km SE of Pipe Creek, Bandera County,</td><td>[18] (Figure 3B)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td>Texas, USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Norman, Cleveland County, Oklahoma, USA</td><td>[19]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Incilius nebulifer (Girard, 1854)</td><td>Bufonidae</td><td>Dallas, Dallas County, Texas, USA</td><td>[20]</td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma hentzi (Girard, 1852)</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Anaxyrus debilis (Girard, 1854)</td><td>Bufonidae</td><td>Kenton, Cimarron County, Colorado, USA</td><td>[21]</td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma seemanni (F.O.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Incilius sp.</td><td>Bufonidae</td><td>Palo Verde National Park, Guanacaste</td><td>[22]</td></tr><tr><th>P-Cambridge, 1897)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Province, Costa Rica</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Cotulla, La Salle County, Texas, USA</td><td>[23]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>7 km SE of Granford, Parker County, Texas,</td><td>[24]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td>USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Sun City, Williamson County, Texas, USA</td><td>[25]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Arkansas Bend Park, Lago Vista, Travis</td><td>[26]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td>County, Texas, USA</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>San Antonio, Bexar County, Texas, USA</td><td>[27]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Aphonopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell,</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Texas, USA</td><td>C. Ruoso (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1856)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Theraphosid species</th><td>subfamily</td><td>Anuran species</td><td>Anuran family</td><td>Locality</td><td>Source</td></tr><tr><th>Brachypelma klaasi (Schmidt and</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Hypopachus sp.</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>S coast of Jalisco State, Mexico</td><td>R.O. Torres (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Krause, 1994)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Cymbiapophysa sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Pristimantis sp.</td><td>Strabomantidae</td><td>Guayaquil, Guayas Province, Ecuador</td><td>G.C. Romo (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Nhandu carapoensis Lucas, 1983</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Chiasmocleis albopunctata</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Taunay, Aquidauana, Mato Grosso do Sul,</td><td>P. Yushchenko (pers.</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>(Boettger, 1885)</td><td></td><td>Brazil</td><td>comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Nhandu carapoensis Lucas, 1983</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Trachycephalus cf. typhonius</td><td>Hylidae</td><td>Fazenda Barranco Alto, Aquidauana, State of</td><td>[28]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>(Laurenti, 1768)</td><td></td><td>Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Orphnaecus sp.</th><td>Selenocosmiinae</td><td>Rhinella cf. marina (Linnaeus, 1758)</td><td>Bufonidae</td><td>Sison, Province of Pangasinan, Philippines</td><td>D.C. Acuña (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(Figure 4D)</td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Chiasmocleis ventrimaculata</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Tambobata National Reserve, Madre de Dios</td><td>[29]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>(Andersson, 1945)</td><td></td><td>Region, Peru</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Chiasmocleis ventrimaculata</td><td>Microhylidae</td><td>Amarakaeri Communal Reserve, Manú</td><td>W.W. Lamar (pers. obs.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>(Andersson, 1945)</td><td></td><td>Province, Madre de Dios Region, Peru</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Pamphobeteus sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo de los</td><td>N. Pedersen (pers.comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td>Tsáchilas Province, Ecuador</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Phormictopus atrichomatus</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Eleutherodactylus inoptatus</td><td>Eleutherodactylidae</td><td>Villa Mella, Santo Domingo, Dominican</td><td>A. Tosto (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Schmidt, 1991</th><td></td><td>(Barbour, 1914)</td><td></td><td>Republic</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Psalmopoeus reduncus (Karsch,</th><td>Psalmopoeinae</td><td>Oophaga pumilio (Schmidt, 1857)</td><td>Dendrobatidae</td><td>La Selva Biological Station, Puerto Viejo de</td><td>[30]</td></tr><tr><th>1880)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sarapiquí, Heredia Province, Costa Rica</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Rancho Carge, Campana, Panamá Oeste</td><td>V. von Wirth (pers.</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td>Province, Panama</td><td>comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Santa Fé de Veraguas, Veraguas Province,</td><td>D. Weinmann (pers.</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td>Panama</td><td>comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Santa Catalina, Veraguas Province, Panama</td><td>A. Hooijer (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>nr. La Soledad, Veraguas, Panama</td><td>M. Hüsser (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td></td><td>(Figure 4A)</td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Chiriquí Province, Panama</td><td>C. Hamilton (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Sericopelma sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Sortová, Chiriquí Province, Panama</td><td>H. Forbes (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Tliltocatl kahlenbergi (Rudloff,</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Coyocillo, Veracruz State, Mexico</td><td>E. Hijmensen (pers.</td></tr><tr><th>2008)</th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td></td><td>comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Xenesthis intermedia Schiapelli and</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Colombia</td><td>D. Weinmann (pers.</td></tr><tr><th>Gerschman, 1945</th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td></td><td>comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Xenesthis sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Barichara, Santander Department, Colombia</td><td>D. Weinmann (pers.</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td></td><td>comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Xenesthis sp.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Rhinella horribilis (Wiegmann, 1833)</td><td>Bufonidae</td><td>Guayabal de Síquima, Cundinamarca,</td><td>[31]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Colombia</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Theraphosid species</th><td>subfamily</td><td>Anuran species</td><td>Anuran family</td><td>Locality</td><td>Source</td></tr><tr><th>Undet.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Pleurodema thaul (Schneider, 1799)</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Laguna Verde, Valparaíso, Chile</td><td>I. Ma (pers. comm.)</td></tr><tr><th>Undet.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Engystomops pustulosus (Cope,</td><td>Leptodactylidae</td><td>Bosque del Rio Tigre, Golfito, Puntarenas</td><td>[32]</td></tr><tr><th></th><td></td><td>1864)</td><td></td><td>Province, Costa Rica</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Undet.</th><td>Theraphosinae</td><td>Rhinella marina (Linnaeus, 1758)</td><td>Bufonidae</td><td>Manu National Park, Madre do Dios, Peru</td><td>[33]</td></tr></tbody></table>*Misidentified as Xenesthis immanis (Ausserer, 1875); **misidentified as Tliltocatl vagans (Ausserer, 1875); ***misidentified as Eupalaestrus campestratus (Simon, 1891).[1] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/172411312, [2] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/125458764, [3] https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=10160781211613712, [4] https:// www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=411156599666996, [5] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/266251, [6] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/209144699, [7] https://www.inatural ist.org/observations/206501111, [8] https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=10153238906520170, [9] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/117511527, [10] https://www.inaturalist.org/ observations/67928814, [11] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/2981542, [12] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/110802457, [13] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/ 151080, [14] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/20414694, [15] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/69356138, [16] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/72305901, [17] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/78145809, [18] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/162334153, [19] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/155826470, [20] https://www. inaturalist.org/observations/16261103, [21] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/163547664, [22] https://www.facebook.com/profile/100063464321508/search/?q =seemanni, [23] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/112197934, [24] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/203122573, [25] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/47659937, [26] https://www. inaturalist.org/observations/10620369, [27] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/16617418, [28] https://www.flickr.com/photos/colms_photos/15447166140/, [29] https://www.inatural ist.org/observations/516215, [30] https://fineartamerica.com/featured/tarantula-and-frog-gregory-g-dimijian-md.html, [31] https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/92328064, [32] https:// www.flickr.com/photos/birdernaturalist/8570818315, [33] https://www.flickr.com/photos/rainforests/4592123067/in/album-72157623917519157/.

openOct 2024View details →

Dataset and code for A Multidimensional Error Verification Method for Weather Forecast Based on the Spatial Distribution Structural Similarity of Meteorological Elements

The dataset includes rainfall observations and mesoscale numerical prediction data for 16 July 2019, 13 June 2020 and 2024 rainy season. The code is the algorithm procedure of this paper. Among them, meiyutest.py is the rainfall scoring procedure for the Meiyu period, and 2019case is the forecast scoring and plotting procedure for two individual cases.

opencc-by-4.0Nov 2024View details →

Replication package of the paper "Do LLMs Provide Links to Code Similar to what they Generate? A Study with Gemini and Bing CoPilot"

<h1>Replication Package</h1> This replication package contains the necessary tools, data, and scripts for reproducing the results of our paper: "Do LLMs Provide Links to Code Similar to what they Generate? A Study with Gemini and Bing CoPilot". Below is a detailed description of the directory structure and the contents of this package. <h2>Contents</h2> The replication package is organized into two main directories: <ul> <li> <code>assets</code>: This directory contains all .csv files used as input for the script and the outputted .csv file used to perform the manual and automated analyses for RQ1 and RQ2. </li> <li> <code>script</code>: This directory contains all scripts for RQ1 and RQ2. </li> </ul> In the following, we describe the content of each directory: <h2><code>assets</code></h2> This directory contains the tools and resources required for our study. <h3><code>dataset</code>: Contains the main datasets used in the study.</h3> <ul> <li> <code>annotationStore.csv</code>: Input dataset for our analyses, originating from the CODESEARCHNET dataset. </li> <li> <code>queries.csv</code>: .csv file containing the queries used for the experiments filtered from the CODESEARCHNETdataset. This file contains the following columns: <ul> <li>Language: Programming language of the query</li> <li>Query: Query used for the experiment</li> <li>GitHubUrl: GitHub URL related to a snippet that addresses the query</li> <li>Relevance: Relevance of the linked GitHub snippet to the query</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h3><code>data</code>: Contains the datasets and results of all analyses.</h3> <ul> <li> <code>queries.csv</code>: General input queries. This file contains the following columns: <ul> <li>Language: Programming language of the query</li> <li>Query: Query used for the snippet generation</li> <li>Prompt: LLM prompt generated for the query as: You are a Senior <code><Language></code> developer. Then give me a <code><Language></code> code snippet about: <code><Query></code></li> </ul> </li> <li> <code>queries_filled.csv</code>: Similar to the previous file, but also containing the output produced by the LLM-based assistants. This file contains the following columns: <ul> <li>Language: Programming language of the query</li> <li>Query: Query used for the snippet generation</li> <li>Prompt: LLM prompt generated for the query as: You are a Senior <code><Language></code> developer. Then give me a <code><Language></code> code snippet about: <code><Query></code></li> <li>Notes: General notes that provide additional context or information about the query or prompt.</li> <li>Gemini_Answer(n): The generated code snippets by Gemini.</li> <li>Gemini(n): The external links provided by Gemini.</li> <li>Prompt (repeated)</li> <li>Note: Notes that provide additional context or information about the query or prompt.</li> <li>Copilot_Answer(n): The generated code snippets by Bing-Copilot.</li> <li>Copilot_Bing(n): The external links provided by Bing-Copilot.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4><code>copilot</code> || <code>gemini</code>: Contains the data related to the specific LLM. These two subdirectories have the same internal structure.</h4> <ul> <li><code>queries.csv</code>: The <code>queries_filled.csv</code> file, filtered for the specific LLM.</li> <li><code>queries_noTrivial.csv</code>: Contains only the queries with at least one nontrivial generated snippet.</li> <li> <code>external_links.csv</code>: External links extracted from the LLMs output. </li> <li> <code>external_links_filled.csv</code>: Snippets extracted from the external links. <ul> <li>index: Query ID</li> <li>source: Snippet ID</li> <li>url: Link URL</li> <li>note: Notes that provide additional context or information about the query or prompt</li> <li>code(n): The n-th code snippet extracted from the source</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4><code>manual_analysis</code>: Manual analysis results.</h4> <ul> <li><code>manual_analysis.csv</code>: <ul> <li>index: Query ID</li> <li>query: Query used for the snippet generation</li> <li>generatedsnippet(n): The n-th code snippet generated by the LLM-based assistant</li> <li>trivial_1: Manual analysis of whether or not the snippet was trivial (validator 1)</li> <li>trivial_2: Manual analysis of whether or not the snippet was trivial (validator 2)</li> <li>trivial_final: Manual analysis of whether or not the snippet was trivial (final classification if there is a disagreement)</li> <li>source: URL to analyze</li> <li>sourcetype1: Type of the source (validator 1)</li> <li>sourcetype2: Type of the source (validator 2)</li> <li>sourcetypefinal: Type of the source (final classification if there is a disagreement)</li> <li>relatedtoquery_1: Relevance of the link to the query (validator 1)</li> <li>relatedtoquery_2: Relevance of the link to the query (validator 2)</li> <li>relatedtoquery_final: Relevance of the link to the query (final classification if there is a disagreement)</li> <li>relatedtosnippets_1: Relevance of the generated snippet to those in the link (validator 1)</li> <li>relatedtosnippets_2: Relevance of the generated snippet to those in the link (validator 2)</li> <li>relatedtosnippets_final: Relevance of the generated snippet to those in the link (final classification if there is a disagreement)</li> </ul> </li> <li><code>manual_analysis_noTrivial.csv</code>: As in the previous file, but only the queries with at least one nontrivial generated code snippet.</li> </ul> <h4><code>clone_detector</code>: Output and intermediate files for clone detection with Copilot data.</h4> <ul> <li><code>copilot_tokens || gemini_tokens</code>: Contains the output the tokenization of the generated code snippets and the code snippets extracted from the external links.</li> <li><code>merged_llm_ext_link.csv</code>: All possible pairs (Cartesian product) (code snippet extracted from the external links, generated code snippet). This file is the input of the clone detection tool. <ul> <li>ID_query: Query ID</li> <li>query: Query used for the snippet generation</li> <li>language: Programming language of the query</li> <li>generated_snippet: The generated code snippet by the LLM-based assistant</li> <li>IDgensnippet: The index of the generated code snippet</li> <li>LOCgensnippet: The number of lines of code of the generated code snippet</li> <li>ID_source: Source ID</li> <li>source: Source URL</li> <li>source_snippet: Code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>IDsourcesnippet: ID of the code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>LOCsourcesnippet: The number of lines of code of the code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>note: Notes that provide additional context or information about the query or prompt</li> </ul> </li> <li><code>clone_detection_output.csv</code>: Contains the clone detection results. <ul> <li>ID_query: The index of the query</li> <li>query: Query used for the snippet generation</li> <li>language: The programming language of the query</li> <li>generated_snippet: The generated code snippet by the LLM-based assistant</li> <li>IDgensnippet: The index of the generated code snippet</li> <li>LOCgensnippet: The number of lines of code of the generated code snippet</li> <li>ID_source: Source ID</li> <li>source: Source URL</li> <li>source_snippet: Code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>IDsourcesnippet: ID of the code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>LOCsourcesnippet: The number of lines of code of the code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>note: Notes that provide additional context or information about the query or prompt</li> <li>clone_detected: bBolean value that indicates whether a clone has been detected (1 = detected, 0 = not detected)</li> <li>cloning_ratio: Ratio of the number of lines of code of the generated code snippet has been detected as a clone in the code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>cloned_lines: The number of lines of code of the generated code snippet that has been detected as a clone in the code snippet extracted from the source</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4><code>cosine_sim</code>: Cosine similarity results.</h4> <ul> <li><code>cosine_sim_output.csv</code>: Contains the cosine similarity results <ul> <li>query_id: Query ID</li> <li>snippet_id:ID the generated code snippet</li> <li>source_id: ID of the source</li> <li>sourcesnippetid: ID of the code snippet extracted from the source <ul> <li>cosine_similarity: The cosine similarity between the generated code snippet and the code snippet extracted from the source</li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4><code>quant_analysis</code>: Quantitative analysis results.</h4> <ul> <li><code>topN_links_se.csv</code>: Contains the top-N links extracted from the search engine. <ul> <li>id: Query ID</li> <li>query: The query</li> <li>url: Link URL</li> </ul> </li> <li><code>merged_clone_cosine.csv</code>: Contains the merged results of the clone detection and cosine similarity. <ul> <li>ID_query: Query ID</li> <li>query: The query</li> <li>language: The programming language of the query</li> <li>generated_snippet: The generated code snippet by the LLM-based assistant</li> <li>IDgensnippet: The ID of the generated code snippet</li> <li>LOCgensnippet: The number of lines of code of the generated code snippet</li> <li>ID_source: The index of the source</li> <li>source: The source URL</li> <li>source_snippet: The code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>IDsourcesnippet: The index of the code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>LOCsourcesnippet: The number of lines of code of the code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>note: Notes that provide additional context or information about the query or prompt</li> <li>clone_detected: Boolean value that indicates if a clone has been detected(1 = detected, 0 = not detected)</li> <li>cloning_ratio: The ratio of the number of lines of code of the generated code snippet has been detected as a clone in the code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>cloned_lines: The number of lines of code of the generated code snippet that has been detected as a clone in the code snippet extracted from the source</li> <li>cosine_similarity: The cosine similarity between the generated code snippet and the code snippet extracted from the source</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4><code>other_analysis</code>: Contains more performed analysis.</h4> <ul> <li><code>sample_queries.csv</code>: Contains a sample of five queries for language used for perform the chain of thought experiment. <ul> <li>Language: Programming language of the query</li> <li>Query: Query used for the snippet generation</li> <li>Prompt: LLM prompt generated for the query as: You are a Senior <code><Language></code> developer. Then give me a <code><Language></code> code snippet about: <code><Query></code></li> </ul> </li> <li><code>chain_of_thought.csv</code>: <ul> <li>Language: Programming language of the query</li> <li>Query: Query used for the snippet generation</li> <li>Prompt: LLM prompt generated for the query as: You are a Senior <code><Language></code> developer. Then give me a <code><Language></code> code snippet about: <code><Query></code></li> <li>Clone_fonud: Boolean value that indicates if a clone has been detected (Yes = detected, No = not detected)</li> <li>Note: Notes that provide additional context or information about the performed analysis</li> </ul> </li> <li><code>data_check.csv</code>: <ul> <li>Link: URL of the source provided by the LLM</li> <li>Post_date: Indicates if the date of the post is before/after the date of training of the LLM (before 2023, after 2023, not provided)</li> <li>Note: Notes that provide additional context or information about the performed analysis</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4><code>results</code>: Final analysis results.</h4> <ul> <li><code>jaccard_analysis.csv</code>: Contains the results of the Jaccard analysis comparing the provided external links by the LLMs with the top-N links extracted from the corresponding search engine. <ul> <li>id: Query ID</li> <li>language: The programming language of the query</li> <li>llm_link: The external links provided by the LLM</li> <li>llmlinksize: The number of external links provided by the LLM</li> <li>overlap_links: The overlapping links between the LLM and the search engine</li> <li>overlap_size: The number of overlapping links between the LLM and the search engine</li> <li>nonoverlaplinks: The non-overlapping links between the LLM and the search engine</li> <li>union_size: The size of the union set links between the LLM and the search engine</li> <li>jaccard: The Jaccard similarity between the LLM and the search engine</li> </ul> </li> <li><code>merged_analysis.csv</code>: Contains the merged results of the manual and quantitative analyses. <ul> <li>id: The index of the query</li> <li>query: The query used for the experiment</li> <li>trivial_final(n): The final assignment for the triviality of the n-th generated code snippet</li> <li>source: The URL of the source</li> <li>sourcetypefinal: The final assignment for the type of the source</li> <li>relatedtoquery_final: The final assignment for the relevance of the generated code snippet to the query</li> <li>relatedtosnippets_final: The final assignment for the relevance of the generated code snippet to the source</li> <li>cloning_ratio: The maximum cloning ratio between the generated code snippet and all the code snippets extracted from the source</li> <li>cosine_similarity: The cosine similarity related to the snippets with maximum cloning ratio</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h3><code>cccfindersw-configuration-files</code>:</h3> Contains additional configuration files for the CCFinderSW clone detection tool. The files are <code>javascript_comment.txt</code> and <code>javascript_reserved.txt</code>. They must be placed in the tool's <code>comment/</code> and <code>reserved/</code> directories. <h3><code>appendix.tex</code>: The appendix of the paper containing:</h3> <ul> <li>Table 1: Number of links of different types provided by Gemini and Bing CoPilot</li> </ul> <h3><code>appendix.pdf</code>: The appendix of the paper in PDF format.</h3> <h2><code>script</code></h2> This directory contains our scripts (mostly Python, an R script and an Applescript) to preprocess data and run the clone detection analyses. <ul> <li><code>1_dateset_filtering.py</code>: Script to filter the dataset. The input of this script is the <code>annotationStore.csv</code> file, and the output is the <code>queries.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>2_prompt_generation.py</code>: Script to generate prompts for the LLM-based assistants. The input of this script is the <code>queries.csv</code> file, and the output is the <code>queries_filled.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>3_gen_sheet_sources_extraction.py</code>: Script to split the external links provided by the LLM, one for each row. The input of this script is the <code>queries_filled.csv</code> file, and the output is the <code>external_link.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>4_ext_link_snippet_extraction.py</code>: Script to extract the snippets from Web URLs. It only works for the most popular domains. The input of this script is the <code>external_links.csv</code> file, and the output is the <code>external_links_filled.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>5_top_n_link_SearchEngine.py</code>: Script to perform top-N link search using the corresponding search engines (Google Search and Bing). The input of this script is the <code>queries_filled.csv</code> file. It executes the <code>browser_bot.scpt</code>. The output is the <code>topN_links_se.csv</code> file. <ul> <li><code>browser_bot.scpt</code>: Script for browser automation (AppleScript).</li> </ul> </li> <li><code>6_se_vs_llm.py</code>: Script to compare (using the Jaccard metric) the links returned by the corresponding search engines with those provided by the LLM-based assistants. The input of this script is the <code>external_links.csv</code> file and the <code>topN_links_se.csv</code> file. The output is the <code>jaccaard_analysis.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>7_results_manual_analysis.py</code>: Script to extract results and statistical analyses performed on the manual analysis and reported in the tables in the paper.</li> <li><code>8_merge_gen_source_snippets.py</code>: This script takes as input: <code>{llm}/queries.csv</code> and <code>{llm}/external_link_filled.csv</code> to merge them and generates an expanded one, i.e., one in which we have on each line a snippet extracted from the source, this will be the input of our final script for clone detection. The output is the <code>merged_llm_ext_link.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>9_clone_detection.py</code>: Script to perform clone detection. The input of this script is the <code>merged_llm_ext_link.csv</code> file, and the output is the <code>clone_detection_output.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>10_cosine_sim_check.py</code>: Script to compute the code snippets' cosine similarity. The script takes as input the tokenized files from the <code>{llm}_tokens</code> directory. The output is the <code>cosine_sim_output.csv</code>file.</li> <li><code>11_merger_clone_cosine.py</code>: Script to merge clone detection and cosine similarity results. The input of this script is the <code>clone_detection_output.csv</code> and the <code>cosine_sim_output.csv</code> files, and the output is the <code>merged_clone_cosine.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>12_merge_manual_quantitative_analysis.py</code>: Script to merge manual and quantitative analysis results. The inputs of this script are the <code>manual_analysis.csv</code> and the <code>merged_clone_cosine.csv</code>files, and the output is the <code>merged_analysis.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>13_sample_for_COT_analysis.py</code>: Script to collect the sample of queries on which we perform the chain of thought analysis, the output is the <code>sample_queries.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>14_llm_vs_csn.py</code>: Script to check the overlap between the links provided by the LLM and the one associated with the related query in the CodeSearchNet dataset. The input of this script is the <code>queries.csv</code>and <code>queries_noTrivial.csv</code> file.</li> <li><code>cloningGraph.R</code>: R script to generate the cloning graph. The input of this script is the <code>merged_analysis.csv</code> file.</li> </ul>

opencc-zeroDec 2015View details →

Data from: Bee communities along a prairie restoration chronosequence: similar abundance and diversity, distinct composition

Recognition of the importance of bee conservation has grown in response to declines of managed honey bees and some wild bee species. Habitat loss has been implicated as a leading cause of declines, suggesting that ecological restoration is likely to play an increasing role in bee conservation efforts. In the Midwestern USA, restoration of tallgrass prairie has traditionally targeted plant community objectives without explicit consideration for bees. However, restoration of prairie vegetation is likely to provide ancillary benefits to bees through increased foraging and nesting resources. We investigated community assembly of bees across a chronosequence of restored eastern tallgrass prairies and compared patterns to those in control and reference habitats (old fields and prairie remnants, respectively). We collected bees for three years and measured diversity and abundance of in-bloom flowering plants, vegetation structure, ground cover, and surrounding land use as predictors of bee abundance and bee taxonomic and functional diversity. We found that site-level variables, but not site type or restoration age, were significant predictors of bee abundance (bloom diversity: p = 0.004, bare ground cover: p = 0.02) and bee diversity (bloom diversity: p = 0.01). There were significant correlations between overall composition of bee and blooming plant communities (mantel test: p = 0.002), and both plant and bee assemblages in restorations were intermediate between those of old fields and remnant prairies. Restorations exhibited high bee beta diversity, i.e., restored sites' bee assemblages were taxonomically and functionally differentiated from each other. This pattern was strong in younger restorations (< 20 years old), but absent from older restorations (> 20 years), suggesting restored prairie bee communities become more similar to one another and more similar to remnant prairie bee communities over time with the arrival of more species and functional groups of bees. Our results indicate that old fields, restorations, and remnants provide habitat for diverse and abundant bee communities, but continued restoration of old fields will help support and conserve bee communities more similar to reference bee communities characteristic of remnant prairies.

opencc-zeroDec 2017View details →

Data from: How do similarities in spatial distributions and interspecific associations affect the coexistence of Quercus species in the Baotianman National Nature Reserve, Henan, China

Congeneric species often have similar ecological characteristics and use similar resources. These similarities may make it easier for them to co-occur in a similar habitat but may also lead to strong competitions that limit their coexistence. Hence, how do similarities in congeneric species affect their coexistence exactly? This study mainly used spatial point pattern analysis in two 1 hm2 plots in the Baotianman National Nature Reserve, Henan, China, to compare the similarities in spatial distributions and interspecific associations of Quercus species. Results revealed that Quercus species were all aggregated under the complete spatial randomness null model, and aggregations were weaker under the heterogeneous Poisson process null model in each plot. The interspecific associations of Quercus species to non-Quercus species were very similar in Plot 1. However, they can be either positive or negative in different plots between the co-occurring Quercus species. The spatial distributions of congeneric species, interspecific associations with non-Quercus species, neighborhood richness around species, and species diversity were all different between the two plots. We found that congeneric species did have some similarities, and the closely related congeneric species can positive or negative associate with each other in different plots. The co-occurring congeneric species may have different survival strategies in different habitats. On one hand, competition among congenerics may lead to differentiation in resource utilization. On the other hand, their similar interspecific associations can strengthen their competitive ability and promote local exclusion to non-congeneric species to obtain more living space. Our results provide new knowledge for us to better understand the coexistence mechanisms of species.

opennotspecifiedNov 2020View details →

Figure 1 in Redescriptions of a neglected species of Pseudonereis Kinberg, 1865 (Annelida: Nereididae) and its similar congener from the Eastern Tropical Pacific

Figure 1. Pseudonereis mancorae (Berkeley and Berkeley, 1961) comb. nov. and P. pseudonoodti (Fauchald, 1977). (a–c,g) Holotype of N. (Neanthes) mancorae (USNM 32887); (d,e) paratype of N. (Neanthes) mancorae (USNM 32888); (f,h,i) holotype of Neanthes pseudonoodti (USNM 53090). (a) Whole body, dorsal view. (b) Anterior region, dorsal view. (c) Anterior region, lateral view. (d) Pharynx semi-everted, dissected, ventral view. (e) Anterior region and semi-everted pharynx, dorsal view. (f) Anterior region and everted pharynx, dorsal view. (g) Posterior region, dorsal view (arrow pointing to pygidial cirri). (h) Posterior region, multiple positions, markedly damaged. (i) Pharynx everted, ventral view. Roman numerals refer to pharyngeal areas. Scale bars: (a) 1 mm; (b–i) 0.5 mm.

opennotspecifiedNov 2020View details →

Figure 3 in Redescriptions of a neglected species of Pseudonereis Kinberg, 1865 (Annelida: Nereididae) and its similar congener from the Eastern Tropical Pacific

Figure 3. Pseudonereis pseudonoodti (Fauchald, 1977). (a–c,i–l) holotype (USNM 53090); (d–h) paratype (USNM 53091). (a–f) Parapodia, anterior view. (g) Homogomph spiniger, notopodia. (h) Heterogomph spiniger, subacicular neurochaetae. (i) Heterogomph falciger, supracicular neurochaetae. (j) Heterogomph falciger, subacicular neurochaetae. (k) Heterogomph falciger, supracicular neurochaetae. (l) Heterogomph falciger, supracicular neurochaetae. Please refer all this with: All numbers refer to the chaetiger. Arrows point to base of dorsal cirri. Scale bars: (a–f) 0.1 mm; (g,h) 25 µm; (i–l) 10 µm.

opennotspecifiedNov 2020View details →

Figure 2 in Redescriptions of a neglected species of Pseudonereis Kinberg, 1865 (Annelida: Nereididae) and its similar congener from the Eastern Tropical Pacific

Figure 2. Pseudonereis mancorae (Berkeley and Berkeley, 1961) comb. nov. (a–f) holotype (USNM 32887); (g–l) paratype (USNM 32888). (a–f) Parapodia, anterior view. (g) Homogomph spiniger, notopodia. (h) Heterogomph spiniger, subacicular neurochaetae, distally broken. (i) Heterogomph falciger, supracicular neurochaetae. (j) Heterogomph falciger, subacicular neurochaetae. (k) Heterogomph falciger, supracicular neurochaetae. (l) Heterogomph falciger, subacicular neurochaetae. Numbers in parapodia and chaetae refer to the chaetiger. Arrows point to base of dorsal cirri. Scale bars: (a) 0.1 mm; (b–f) 0.2 mm; (g,h) 25 µm; (i–l) 10 µm.

opencc-zeroJun 2021View details →

Data: Similar neural and perceptual masking effects of low-power optogenetic stimulation in primate V1

Can direct stimulation of primate V1 substitute for a visual stimulus and mimic its perceptual effect? To address this question, we developed an optical-genetic toolkit to "read" neural population responses using widefield calcium imaging, while simultaneously using optogenetics to "write" neural responses into V1 of behaving macaques. We focused on the phenomenon of visual masking, where detection of a dim target is significantly reduced by a co-localized medium-brightness pedestal. Using our toolkit, we tested whether V1 optogenetic stimulation can recapitulate the perceptual masking effect of a visual pedestal. We find that, similar to a visual pedestal, low-power optostimulation can significantly reduce visual detection sensitivity, that a sublinear interaction between visual and optogenetic evoked V1 responses could account for this perceptual effect, and that these neural and behavioral effects are spatially selective. Our toolkit and results open the door for further exploration of perceptual substitutions by direct stimulation of sensory cortex.

opencc-zeroJun 2021View details →

Quantifying niche similarity among new world seed plants--Species Distribution Models (SDMs) & associated metadata

Niche shift and conservatism are often framed as mutually exclusive. However, both processes could contribute to biodiversity patterns. We tested this expectation by quantifying the degree of climatic niche similarity among New World seed plants. To incorporate the biological reality that species experience varied abiotic conditions across their range, we assembled distribution models and used these to characterize temperature, precipitation, and elevation niches for species as continuously-valued distributions. We then quantified niche similarity (distributional overlap) and identified statistically significant differences compared to a randomized null. The degree of niche similarity differed among climate variables, plant lineages, and at different phylogenetic scales. For example, ~17% of all seed plants were significantly different in elevational niche from their closest relative(s), whereas for precipitation, this value was only ~4%. Average niche similarity decreased with increasing phylogenetic distance, consistent with niche conservatism; however, variance in niche similarity among close relatives was large, such that there always existed niche differences equaling those among distantly related species. Our results suggest researchers should incorporate both niche shift and conservatism as important, scale-dependent factors shaping biodiversity patterns as these processes are not mutually exclusive, nor do they contribute equally to patterns among different plant lineages or niche variables.

FIGURES 3A–X. A–H in Gilpinia hakonensis and similar species in Japan and ovipositors of five European Gilpinia species (Hymenoptera, Diprionidae)

FIGURES 3A–X. A–H, Head, dorsal view; I–P, dorsal part of head, anterolateral view; Q, head, lateral view; R–X, antenna, inner view (R–T, V, W) or outer view (U, X). A–D, I–L, Q–U, Gilpinia hakonensis: A, I, Q, R, lectotype of Lophyrus hakonensis, female; B, J, S, holotype of G. hakonensis var. laticincta, female; C, K, T, paratype of Diprion fukudai, female; D, L, U, male, Honshu. E–G, M–O, V, W, Gilpinia amamiana: E, M, V, holotype, female; F, N, W, female, Tokunoshima Isl.; G, O, male, Amami Oshima Isl. H, P, X, Gilpinia okinawa, holotype, female. T, Reversed.

FIGURES 7A–F. A, D in Gilpinia hakonensis and similar species in Japan and ovipositors of five European Gilpinia species (Hymenoptera, Diprionidae)

FIGURES 7A–F. A, D, Male genitalia, dorsal view; B, E, male genitalia (penis valve removed), ventral view; C, F, penis valve, lateral view (left dorsal). A–C, Gilpinia hakonensis, Honshu. D–F, Gilpinia amamiana, Amami Oshima Isl.

FIGURES 8A–L in Gilpinia hakonensis and similar species in Japan and ovipositors of five European Gilpinia species (Hymenoptera, Diprionidae)

FIGURES 8A–L. Ovipositor or lance, dorsal and lateral views. A, B, Gilpinia abieticola, Austria; C, D, G. frutetorum, Ger- many; E, F, G. laricis, Austria; G, H, G. socia, "Czechoslovakia"; I, J, G. variegata, Germany; K, L, G. hercyniae, Wales. D, Reversed.

FIGURES 2A–H. A–F, I–K in Gilpinia hakonensis and similar species in Japan and ovipositors of five European Gilpinia species (Hymenoptera, Diprionidae)

FIGURES 2A–H. A–F, I–K, Gilpinia amamiana: A, B, holotype, female; C, D, female, Tokunoshima Isl.; E, F, male, Amami Oshima Isl. G, H, L, Gilpinia okinawa, holotype, female. A, C, E, G, Dorsal view; B, D, F, H, ventrolateral view; I–L, head, frontal view.