Find research datasets worth reusing

opencc-zeroJul 2020View details →

Data from: Nitrogen fertilizer decreases survival and reproduction of female locusts by increasing plant protein to carbohydrate ratio

1. Nitrogen limitation theory predicts that terrestrial plants should benefit from nitrogen inputs and that herbivores should benefit from subsequent higher plant protein contents. While this pattern has generally been supported, some herbivorous insects have shown preference and higher performance on low protein (p), high carbohydrate (c) diets as juveniles. 2. However, little is known about the effects on reproduction in adults. Using nitrogen fertilizer, we demonstrate that high plant p:c has negative effects on Senegalese locust (Orthoptera: Oedaeleus senegalensis) reproduction and survival in an agroecological setting. 3. For this, we measured p:c in millet plants (Pennisetum glaucum) that received two levels of fertilizer (high and moderate) and a control, then we caged locusts on these plants for two weeks. In the laboratory, we gave locusts the choice between untreated millet leaves and leaves that received one of the two fertilization treatment. 4. We found that fertilization increased p:c ratio in a concentration dependent fashion. We counted the number of locusts alive over the course of two weeks and showed that fewer females survived on fertilized plants than on control plants. Females that ate plants from the high fertilization treatment laid lighter eggs. Finally, we showed that female locusts prefer unfertilized plants to plants with a high p:c. 5. We hypothesize that this pattern will apply broadly to species that have extensive carbohydrate needs, such as long-distance migrators. Because many ecological studies focus primarily on nitrogen or protein, and fail to consider carbohydrates, this study has important implications for how ecologists consider nutrient limitation of primary consumers in ecosystems globally.

opencc-zeroJul 2020View details →

Data from: Mate fidelity improves survival and breeding propensity of a long-lived bird

1. Evolutionary and behavioral ecologists have long been interested in factors shaping the variation in mating behavior observed in nature. Whereas, much of the research on this topic has focused on the consequences of mate choice and mate change on annual reproductive success, studies of a potential positive link between mate fidelity and adult demographic rates have been comparatively rare. This is particularly true for long-lived birds with multi-year, socially monogamous pair bonds. 2. We used a 26-year capture-mark-recapture dataset of 3,330 black brent (Branta bernicla nigricans) to test whether breeding with a familiar mate improved future breeding propensity and survival. We predicted that experienced breeders nesting with a new partner would have rates of survival similar to familiar pairs because long-lived species avoid jeopardizing survival since their lifetime fitness is sensitive to this vital rate. In contrast, we expected that any costs of breeding with a new partner would be paid through skipping the subsequent breeding attempt. 3. We found that unfamiliar pairs had lower subsequent breeding propensity than faithful partners. However, contrary to our expectations, individuals breeding with a new mate also suffered reduced survival. 4. These results add to a small number of studies indicating that a positive relationship between mate retention and adult demographic rates may exist in a diverse array of avian species. Given these results, researchers should consider costs of mate change that extend beyond within-season reproductive success to fully understand the potential adaptive basis for perennial social monogamy. We caution that if mate retention enhances survival prospects, improvements in annual reproductive success with pair-bond length could be a secondary factor favoring perennial social monogamy, particularly in species with slower life history strategies. Further, cases where annual reproductive success does not improve with pair-bond duration, yet multi-year pair bonds are common, could be explained by benefits afforded by mate fidelity to adult vital rates.

opencc-zeroJul 2020View details →

Data from: Neural dysfunction correlates with heat coma and CTmax in Drosophila but does not set the boundaries for heat stress survival

When heated, insects lose coordinated movement followed by the onset of heat coma (critical thermal maximum, CTmax). These traits are popular measures to quantify interspecific and intraspecific differences in insect heat tolerance, and CTmax correlates well with current species distributions of insects, including Drosophila. Here, we examined the function of the central nervous system (CNS) in five species of Drosophila with different heat tolerances, while they were exposed to either constant high temperature or a gradually increasing temperature (ramp). Tolerant species were able to preserve CNS function at higher temperatures and for longer durations than sensitive species, and similar differences were found for the behavioural indices (loss of coordination and onset of heat coma). Furthermore, the timing and temperature (constant and ramp exposure, respectively) for loss of coordination or complete coma coincided with the occurrence of spreading depolarisation (SD) events in the CNS. These SD events disrupt neurological function and silence the CNS, suggesting that CNS failure is the primary cause of impaired coordination and heat coma. Heat mortality occurs soon after heat coma in insects; to examine whether CNS failure could also be the proximal cause of heat death, we used selective heating of the head (CNS) and abdomen (visceral tissues). When comparing the temperature causing 50% mortality (LT50) of each body part versus that of the whole animal, we found that the head was not particularly heat sensitive compared with the abdomen. Accordingly, it is unlikely that nervous failure is the principal/proximate cause of heat mortality in Drosophila.

opencc-zeroFeb 2020View details →

Data from: A quantitative review of density-dependent growth and survival in salmonids: biological mechanisms, methodological biases, and management implications

Understanding the complex variation in patterns of density-dependent individual growth and survival across populations is critical to adaptive fisheries management, but the extent to which this variation is caused by biological or methodological differences is unclear. Consequently, we conducted a correlational meta-analysis of published literature to investigate the relative importance of methodological and biological predictors on the shape and strength of density-dependent individual growth and survival in salmonids. We obtained 160 effect sizes from 75 studies of 12 species conducted between 1977-2019 that differed in experimental approach (sensu Hurlbert, 1984; 65 laboratory experiments, 60 observational field studies, and 35 field experiments). The experimental approach was the strongest factor influencing the strength of density-dependence across studies: density-dependent survival was stronger than growth in field observational studies, whereas laboratory experiments detected stronger density-dependent growth than survival. The difference between density-dependent growth and survival was minimal in field experiments, and between lotic and lentic habitats. The shape of density-dependence (logarithmic, linear, exponential, or density-independent) could be predicted with 66.7% accuracy based solely on the experimental approach and the density gradient (highest/lowest*100) of the study. Overall, the strength and shape of density-dependence were primarily influenced by methodological predictors, while biological factors (predator presence, food abundance, and species) had predictable but modest effects. For both empirical studies and adaptive fisheries management, we recommend using field experiments with a density gradient of at least 460% to detect the proper shape of the density-dependent response, or accounting for potential biases if observational or laboratory studies are conducted.

Data from: Agroforestry coffee soils increase the insect-suppressive potential offered by entomopathogenic fungi over full-sun soils: a case proposing a "bait-survival technique"

Entomopathogenic fungi are important natural enemies of insects. However, there is little information on the insect-suppressive potential of these fungi and possible effects of farming management on this. Meanwhile, changes in natural landscapes due to agricultural intensification have caused considerable biodiversity loss and consequent decay of ecosystem services. However, the adoption of practices such as agroforestry in agroecosystems can foster abiotic and biotic conditions that conserve biodiversity, consequently restoring the provision of ecosystems services. Here, we assessed the effect of management systems (agroforestry or full-sun) on the pest-suppressive potential of entomopathogenic fungi in Brazilian coffee plantations. We used the insect-bait method coupled with survival analyses to assess the speed of kill by entomopathogenic fungi and their presence in soil samples from both farming systems. We found that insects exposed to agroforestry soils died more quickly than insects exposed to full-sun soils. Of the fungi isolated from the insect-baits, Metarhizium was found most frequently, followed by Beauveria. Meanwhile, Fusarium was frequently isolated as primary or secondary infections. We propose that the differential survival of insects is indicative of a greater suppressive potential by entomopathogenic fungi in agroforestry, and that this could be promoted by the diversified landscape, microclimatic stability and reduced soil disturbance in agroforestry systems. Furthermore, our results provide a useful demonstration of the potential use of the insect bait method to investigate pest suppressive potential through insect-bait mortality, and we term this the "bait survival technique".

opencc-zeroDec 2019View details →

Data from: A meta-analysis of global avian survival across species and latitude

Tropical birds are thought to be longer lived than many temperate species. We explored the idea of higher survival at tropical latitudes and whether extrinsic climate factors and intrinsic traits helped explain this pattern using a meta-analytical approach. The dataset consists of 949 estimates from 204 studies of avian survival from both New World and Old World biogeographical realms.

The diversity of maternal-age effects upon pre-adult survival across animal species

Maternal senescence is the detrimental effect of increased maternal age on offspring performance. Despite much recent interest given to describing this phenomenon, its distribution across animal species is poorly understood. A review of the published literature finds that maternal age affects pre-adult survival in 252 of 272 populations (93%) representing 97 animal species. Age effects tended to be deleterious in invertebrates and mammals, including humans, confirming the presence of senescence. However, bird species were a conspicuous exception, as pre-adult survival tended to increase with maternal age in surveyed populations. In all groups, maternal-age effects became more negative in older mothers. Invertebrates senesced faster than vertebrates, and humans aged faster than non-human mammals. Within invertebrates, lepidopterans demonstrated the most extreme rates of maternal-effect senescence. Among the surveyed studies, phylogeny, life history and environment (e.g. laboratory versus wild populations) were tightly associated; this made it difficult to make confident inferences regarding the causes of diversity for the phenomenon. However, we provide some testable suggestions, and we observe that some differences appear to be consistent with predictions from evolutionary theory. We discuss how future work may help clarify ultimate and proximate causes for this diversity.

opencc-zeroDec 2015View details →

Data from: Evolution under dietary restriction increases male reproductive performance without survival cost

Dietary restriction (DR), a reduction in nutrient intake without malnutrition, is the most reproducible way to extend lifespan in a wide range of organisms across the tree of life, yet the evolutionary underpinnings of the DR effect on lifespan are still widely debated. The leading theory suggests that this effect is adaptive and results from reallocation of resources from reproduction to somatic maintenance in order to survive periods of famine in nature. However, such response would cease to be adaptive when DR is chronic and animals are predicted to allocate more resources to reproduction. Nevertheless, chronic DR can also increase the strength of selection resulting in the evolution of more robust genotypes. We evolved Drosophila melanogaster fruitflies on 'DR', 'standard' and 'high' adult diets in replicate populations with overlapping generations. After ~25 generations of experimental evolution, male 'DR' flies had higher fitness than males from 'standard' and 'high' populations. Strikingly, this increase in reproductive success did not come at a cost to survival. Our results suggest that sustained DR selects for more robust male genotypes, which are overall better able to convert resources into energy, which they allocate mostly to reproduction.

The type of leg lost affects habitat use but not survival in a non-regenerating arthropod

Finding shelter and surviving encounters with predators are pervasive challenges for animals. These challenges may be exacerbated after individuals experience bodily damage. Certain forms of damage arise voluntarily in animals, for instance, some taxa release appendages (tails, legs, or other body parts) as a defensive strategy ('autotomy'). This behavior, however, may pose long-term negative consequences for habitat use and survival. Additionally, these putative consequences are expected to vary according to the function of the lost body part. We tested the effects of losing different functional leg types (locomotor or sensory) on future habitat use and survival in a Neotropical species of Prionostemma harvestmen (Arachnida: Opiliones) that undergo frequent autotomy but do not regrow limbs. Daytime surveys revealed that both eight-legged harvestmen and harvestmen missing legs roosted in similar frequencies across habitats (tree bark, mossy tree, or fern), and perched at similar heights. Mark-recapture data showed that harvestmen that lost sensory legs roosted in tree bark less frequently, but on mossy trees more frequently. On the contrary, we did not observe changes in habitat use for eight-legged animals or animals that lost locomotor legs. This change might be related to sensory exploration and navigation. Lastly, we found that recapture rates across substrates were not affected by the type of legs lost, suggesting that leg loss does not impact survival. This potential lack of effect might play a role in why a defensive strategy like autotomy is so prevalent in harvestmen despite the lack of regeneration.

Data from: The standard metabolic rate of a land snail (Cepaea hortensis) is a repeatable trait and influences winter survival

Phenotypic selection on physiological parameters is an underrepresented topic in studies of evolutionary biology. There is especially a lack of studies involving invertebrate organisms. We studied the repeatability of the standard metabolic rate (SMR) and the effect of individual variation in SMR on the subsequent winter survival in a terrestrial shell-bearing mollusc, the white-lipped snail (Cepaea hortensis) in mid-Norway. SMR was measured twice during the autumn and – after an experimental overwintering at controlled conditions – twice during the following spring. We found a significant repeatability of SMR over all three time periods tested, with a clear effect of time, with a high repeatability of 0.56 over 4 days during spring, 0.44 over 12 days in the autumn and 0.17 over 194 days from autumn to spring. That SMR is a repeatable physiological trait across the winter period during which a possible selection might occur, suggests that SMR could be a potential target of natural selection. We indeed found that the autumn SMR significantly influenced the probability of survival during the winter period, with a combination of a positive linear (P = 0.011) and a quadratic stabilizing (P = 0.001) effect on SMR. Our results hence support the view that metabolic rate is an important physiological component influencing the fitness of an organism.

opencc-zeroJan 2020View details →

Social bonds, social status and survival in wild baboons: a tale of two sexes

People who are more socially integrated or have higher socio-economic status live longer. Recent studies in nonhuman primates show striking convergences with this human pattern: female primates with more social partners, stronger social bonds or higher dominance rank all lead longer lives. However, it remains unclear whether social environments also predict survival in male nonhuman primates, as it does in men. This gap persists because, in most primates, males disperse among social groups, resulting in many males who disappear with unknown fate and have unknown dates of birth. We present a Bayesian model to estimate the effects of time-varying social covariates on age-specific adult mortality in both sexes of wild baboons. We compare how the survival trajectories of both sexes are linked to social bonds and social status over the life. We find that, parallel to females, male baboons who are more strongly bonded to females have longer lifespans. However, males with higher dominance rank for their age appear to have shorter lifespans. This finding brings new understanding to the adaptive significance of heterosexual social bonds for male baboons: in addition to protecting the male's offspring from infanticide, these bonds may have direct benefits to males themselves.

Ruffed Grouse Resource Selection Function and Survival Datasets

For overwintering species, individuals' ability to find refugia from inclement weather and predators likely confers strong fitness benefits. How animals use their environment can be mediated by their personality (e.g., risk-taking), but does personality mediate how overwintering species select refugia? Snow cover is a dynamic winter characteristic that can influence crypsis or provide below-the-snow refugia. We explored how wintering ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) selected snow roosting sites, a behavior that reduces stress and cold exposure. We linked selection for ~700 roosts with survival of 42 grouse, and showed that grouse generally selected deeper snow and warmer areas. Grouse found in shallow snow were less likely to survive winter. However, individuals with personalities for selecting deep snow improved their survival, suggesting that demographic consequences of selecting winter refugia are mediated by differences in personality. Our study provides a crucial, and seldom addressed, link between personality in resource selection and resulting demographic consequences.

Survival probability in a small shorebird decreases with the time an individual carries a tracking device

Effects of tracking devices on survival are generally considered to be small. However, most studies to date have been conducted over a time-period of only one year, neglecting the possible accumulation of negative effects and consequently stronger negative impacts on survival when the individuals have carried the tracking devices for longer periods. We studied the effects of geolocators in a closely monitored and colour-ringed southern dunlin (Calidris alpina schinzii) population breeding in Finland. Our capture-recapture data spans 2002-2018 and includes individual histories of 338 colour-ringed breeding adult dunlins (the term 'recapture' includes resightings of colour-ringed and individually recognizable birds). These data include 53 adults that were fitted with leg-flag mounted geolocators in 2013-2014. We followed their fates together with other colour-ringed birds not equipped with geolocators until 2018. Geolocators were removed within 1-2 years of attachment or were not removed at all, which allowed us to examine whether carrying a geolocator reduces survival and whether the reduction in survival becomes stronger when geolocators are carried for more than one year. We fit multi-state open population capture-recapture models to the encounter history data. When assessing geolocator effects, we accounted for recapture probabilities, time since marking, and sex and year effects on survival. We found that carrying a geolocator reduced survival, which contrasts with many studies that examined return rates after one year. Importantly, survival declined with the time the individual had carried a geolocator, suggesting that the negative effects accumulate over time. Hence, the longer monitoring of birds carrying a geolocator may explain the difference from previous studies. Despite their larger mass, females tended to be more strongly affected by geolocators than males. Our results warrant caution in conducting tracking studies and suggest that short-term studies examining return rates may not reveal all possible effects of tracking devices on survival.

Data from: Ageing and senescence across reproductive traits and survival in superb fairy-wrens (Malurus cyaneus)

Why do senescence rates of fitness-related traits often vary dramatically? By considering the full ageing trajectories of multiple traits we can better understand how a species' life-history shapes the evolution of senescence within a population. Here, we examined age-related changes in sex-specific survival, reproduction, and several components of reproduction using a long-term study of a cooperatively-breeding songbird, the superb fairy-wren (Malurus cyaneus). We compared ageing patterns between traits by estimating standardized rates of maturation, the age of onset of senescence, and rates of senescence, while controlling for confounding factors reflecting individual variability in life-history. We found striking differences in ageing and senescence patterns between survival and reproduction, as well as between reproductive traits. In both sexes, survival started to decline from maturity onwards. In contrast, all reproductive traits showed improvements into early adulthood, and many showed little or no evidence of senescence. In females, despite senescence in clutch size, number of offspring surviving to independence did not decline in late life, possibly due to improvements in maternal care with age. Superb fairy-wrens have exceptionally high levels of extra-group paternity, and male extra-group reproductive success showed much greater changes with age than did within-group reproductive success, suggesting that male reproductive ageing is driven by sexual selection. We discuss how the superb fairy-wrens' complex life history may contribute to the disparate ageing patterns across different traits.

Effects of snake fungal disease on short-term survival, behavior, and movement in free-ranging snakes

Pathogenic fungi are increasingly associated with epidemics in wildlife populations. Snake fungal disease (SFD) is an emerging threat to snakes, taxa that are elusive and difficult to sample. Thus, assessments of the impacts of SFD on populations have rarely occurred. We used a field technique to enhance detection, Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) telemetry, and a multistate capture-mark-recapture model to assess SFD effects on short-term (within-season) survival, movement, and surface activity of two wild snake species, Regina septemvittata (Queensnakes) and Nerodia sipedon (Common Watersnakes). We were unable to detect an effect of disease state on short-term survival for either species. However, we estimated Bayesian posterior probabilities of >0.99 that R. septemvittata with SFD spent more time surface-active and were less likely to permanently emigrate from the study area. We also estimated probabilities of 0.98 and 0.87 that temporary immigration and temporary emigration rates were lower in diseased R. septemvittata. We found evidence of elevated surface activity and lower temporary immigration rates in diseased N. sipedon, with estimated probabilities of 0.89, and found considerably less support for differences in permanent or temporary emigration rates. This study is the first to yield estimates for key demographic and behavioral parameters (survival, emigration, surface activity) of snakes in wild populations afflicted with SFD. Given the increase in surface activity of diseased snakes, future surveys of snake populations should explore longer-term demographic consequences of SFD and recognize that disease prevalence in surface-active animals may exceed that of the population as a whole.

Relative reproductive phenology and synchrony affect neonate survival in a nonprecocial ungulate

1. Degree of reproductive synchronization in prey is hypothesized as a predator defense strategy reducing prey risk via predator satiation or predator avoidance. Species with precocial young, especially those exposed to specialist predators, should be highly synchronous to satiate predators (predator satiation hypothesis), while prey with nonprecocial (i.e., altricial) young, especially those exposed to generalist predators, should become relatively asynchronous to avoid predator detection (predator avoidance hypothesis). The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in North America is an example of a nonprecocial ungulate that uses the hider strategy early in life; its primary predator (coyote; Canis latrans) is a generalist, making white-tailed deer a good model species to test the predator avoidance hypothesis. 2. We used birth dates and known fates of white-tailed deer neonates (n=1032) across nine study sites varying in relative synchrony and predator assemblages to test the predator avoidance hypothesis. We predicted that relative birthing asynchrony of the population would increase relative survival at the population level; therefore, at the individual scale, neonate birth date nearer to mean birthing date in a respective population would not influence individual survival. 3. Coyotes were responsible for the majority of predation events, and survival of those neonates increased the closer the individual was born to peak birthing season in each respective population. Also, at the population level, reproductive asynchronization negatively affected survival. 4. Contrary to the predator avoidance hypothesis, our data indicate patterns in neonate survival for white-tailed deer better support the predator satiation hypothesis at the individual and population level. Additionally, coyotes may present a selective force great enough to shift reproductive synchrony such that predator satiation may become a feasible defense strategy for neonates at local spatial scales. 5. Our results indicate that synchronizing reproduction may still be the most effective strategy to reduce individual predation risk from generalist predators, particularly when the window of heightened resource availability to the prey is narrow.

Data from: Surviving drought: a framework for understanding animal responses to small rain events in the arid-zone

Large rain events drive dramatic resource pulses and the complex pulse-reserve dynamics of arid ecosystem changes between high-rain years and drought. However, arid-zone animal responses to short-term changes in climate are unknown, particularly smaller rain events that briefly interrupt longer-term drought. Using arthropods as model animals, we determined the effects of a small rain event on arthropod abundance in western NSW, Australia during a longer-term shift towards drought. Arthropod abundance decreased over two years, but captures of ten out of fifteen ordinal groups increased dramatically after the small rain event (<40mm). The magnitude of increases ranged from 10.4 million% (collembolans) to 81% (spiders). After three months, most groups returned to pre-rain abundance. However, small soil-dwelling beetles, mites, spiders, and collembolans retained high abundances despite the onset of winter temperatures and lack of subsequent rain. As predicted by pulse-reserve models, most arid-zone arthropod populations declined during drought. However, small rain events may play a role in buffering some groups from declines during longer-term drought or other xenobiotic influences. We outline the framework for a new model of animal responses to environmental conditions in the arid zone, as some species clearly benefit from rain inputs that do not dramatically influence primary productivity.

Data from: Timing of vegetation sampling does not influence associations between visual obstruction and turkey nest survival in a montane forest

Evaluating relationships between ecological processes that occur concurrently is complicated by the potential for such processes to covary. Ground-nesting birds rely on habitat characteristics that provide concealment from predators; this protection often is provided by vegetation at the nest. Recently, researchers have raised concern that measuring vegetation at nest fate introduces a bias, as vegetation at successful nests is measured later in the growing season. This bias can lead to an erroneous conclusion that plant height is positively associated with nest survival. However, if the features that provide concealment are invariant during the incubation period, no bias should be expected, and the timing of measurement is less influential. We used data collected from 98 nests to evaluate whether there is evidence that such a bias exists in a study of wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) nesting in a forest ecosystem. We modelled nest survival as a function of visual obstruction and other covariates of interest. At unsuccessful nests, we collected visual obstruction readings at both the date of nest failure and the projected hatch date and compared survival estimates generated using both sets of vegetation data. In contrast to studies in other systems, we found little evidence that the timing of vegetation sampling influenced conclusions regarding the association between visual obstruction and survival; model selection and estimates of nest survival were similar regardless of when vegetation data were collected. The dominant hiding cover at most of our nests was provided by evergreen shrubs; slow growth of these plants likely prevent appreciable changes in visual obstruction during incubation. When considered with a growing body of literature, our results suggest that the influence of timing of sampling depends on the study system. When designing future studies, investigators should consider the structures that provide nest concealment and whether phenology is confounded with nest survival.

Data from: Survival and recruitment dynamics of black-legged kittiwakes Rissa Tridactyla at an Alaskan colony

Most seabirds breed colonially and exhibit considerable site fidelity over the course of their long lifespans. Initial colony selection can therefore have substantial fitness consequences, but factors contributing to recruitment into colonies and subsequent fidelity remain unclear. We used multi-state capture-recapture models to test several hypotheses related to apparent fledgling survival, probability of recruitment to natal colonies, and apparent post-recruitment survival in Black-legged Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla, using data from individuals banded as chicks and subsequently resighted at a colony in south-central Alaska over a 20-year period. Competitive models suggested that apparent fledgling survival declined throughout our study. This decline was likely driven by intrinsic, cohort-specific processes and was not explainable by post-fledging weather or climate conditions. Independent resightings at other colonies suggest the apparent decline may have been at least partially influenced by permanent emigration (natal dispersal), which occurred more frequently when the colony size was large. Recruitment was primarily age-dependent, with no detectable effects from early life experience or from annual changes in four factors: colony size, colony productivity, climate, or average weather conditions. We estimated an average recruitment age of seven years, which is older than typically reported for Atlantic kittiwake populations and which supports a more conservative life history strategy for kittiwakes in the Pacific. Variation in the apparent survival of recruits was cohort-specific and did not correlate with age or annual changes in the factors listed above. Instead, apparent survival of recruits was best explained by colony size during a cohort's second year, suggesting a degree of negative density dependence in post-recruitment survival or fidelity. This information could prove useful to managers deciding how to allocate resources among small, growing colonies and large, well-established colonies.