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Figure 51 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 51. Optics and visual fields of salticid eyes. 1-3, Scale drawings of respective eyes of Phidippus johnsoni, with rays through nodal points (green lines) depicting the width of visual fields, as seen from above (after Land 1969a). The PLE are more symmetrical, with a shorter focal length and much wider field of vision than the ALE. 4, Horizontal view of the ALE and PLE fields of vision of Phidippus. 5-6, Orthographic projections depicting the fields of vision of the ALE (green), PLE (blue) and, the PME (yellow), surrounding a salticine, either Plexippus or Servaea (5) and the spartaeine Portia fimbriata (6), after Land (1985a, 1985b).

Figure 9 in Tropical Asian jumping spiders of the genus Viciria (Araneae: Salticidae: Viciriini)

Figure 9. Female Viciria pavesii with their respective broods on the underside of leaves, Singapore. 1-3, Females with broods that have just hatched. 4-6, Females with broods that are beginning to move beyond the nest. Photographs © Nicky Bay, used with permission.

Figure 50. Adult male Portia fimbriata from Queensland. The large PME fill a in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 50. Adult male Portia fimbriata from Queensland. The large PME fill a gap (~20°) between the fields of vision of the ipsilateral PLE and ALE (Land 1985). 2, The irregular-conical, solid angles correponding to the field of vision of each secondary eye are approximated here with sectors of a single plane. Photographs ©JuNrgen Otto, used with permission.

Figure 5 in Tropical Asian jumping spiders of the genus Viciria (Araneae: Salticidae: Viciriini)

Figure 5. Adult male (1-4) and adult female (5-6) Viciria pavesii photographed in Singapore. Pigmentation of legs II

Figure 47 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 47. Placement of the posterior lateral eyes (PLE) gives the salticid a wide field of view not accessible to the four front eyes. 1, Adult female Phidippus princeps (Peckham & Peckham 1883) from Georgia, looking up from a leaf. 2, Detail from (1), showing the wide field of vision of a PLE. In most salticids the PME are very small as shown here, but their view is not blocked by numerous setae that cover the carapace. 3-4, Facing turn by an immature P. princeps from South Carolina. Motion detected by the left PLE (3) resulted in a rapid turn (4) to face the moving object. These turns are very accurate with respect to integrated horizontal and vertical components of redirection, and no visual feedback from the object of attention is required during each turn (Land 1971, 1972; Hill 1978, 2010a; Bennett & Lewis 1979).

Figure 43 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 43. Different AME receptors can be used to evaluate the same object. 1, Adult female Lyssomanes viridis from South Carolina. 2, Detail from (1), showing focus on large, peripheral layer II receptors of the left AME. 3, Various scanning positions of the retina of the left AME of a Pelegrina aeneola (anterior view, after Land 1969a). Layers I (green) and II (blue) are shown separately, although in an actual view they would overlap and only layer II is visible with an opthalmoscope. From a centered position (C), retinae can be moved up or down to scan an object (circle) with arrays of larger, peripheral receptors (B, D), or rotated (A, E) to alter the scanning pattern.

Figure 49 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 49. Large and small ALE in different Australian salticids. 1, The ALE of peacock spiders, like this euophryine (Maratus bubo Otto & Hill 2016) from Western Australia, are quite large relative to the AME. The cornea of both the ALE and AME of these spiders can refect a brilliant blue or green color. 2, All of the lateral eyes of this small (~3 mm) baviine (Copocrossa Simon 1901) from Queensland are minute, as the AME take up most of the width of the narrow carapace. Photographs ©JuNrgen Otto, used with permission.

Figure 41 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 41. Retinal opponent process theory of human color vision, after Schmidt, Neitz & Neitz 2014. This is a variation on the standard model of color vision and opponent color process (Pridmore 2013). 1, In the blue-yellow (BY) system, hyperpolarization of an L-cone (outlined) by light leads it to reduce its output of glutamate, activating an ON bipolar cell that produces a "yellow" signal, as it deactivates an OFF bipolar cell that would otherwise produce a "blue" signal. These actions are opposed by horizontal cells that collect output of surrounding cones of all three types (S, M, L). 2, In the red-green (RG) system, hyperpolarization of an M-cone (outlined) by light leads it to reduce its output of glutamate, activating an ON bipolar cell that produces a "green" signal, as it deactivates an OFF bipolar cell that would otherwise produce a "red" signal. These actions are opposed by horizontal cells that collect output of surrounding cones of all three types (S, M, L). 3, Although opponent color processing might explain certain psychoperceptual phenomena, addition of a total activity or illuminance signal (Z) to two opposition signals (X, Y) would provide all of the information required for the cerebral cortex to reconstruct each of the original signals (S, M, L). However, these signals do not correspond to our perceptions of true color.

Figure 40 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 40. Schematic view of receptors (cones and rods, at the top) and interneurons in the retina of a trichromatic primate (after Masland 2001, 2011; Surridge, Osorio & Mundy 2003; Solomon & Lennie 2007; Winkler 2010; Field et al. 2010; Nakano et al. 2014; Behrens et al. 2016; Toreson & Dacey 2019; Johnson & Winlow 2019; Patterson, Neitz & Neitz 2021). Receptors interact with both ON (active when receptor is depolarized by light and witholds glutamate) and OFF bipolar cells (activated by glutamate), which then interact with ganglion cells, the axons of which comprise the optic nerve. A variety of horizontal cells collect input from surrounding receptors and modify the behavior of bipolar cells (Chaya et al 2017). There are many different kinds of amacrine cells, with many special functions (Masland 2011; Chen & Li 2013; Yan et al. 2020). These modify the output from bipolar cells to the ganglion cells. The A17 amacrine cell only communicates between rods. The AII amacrine cell relays the activity of rod bipolar cells to ganglion cells. Many bipolar and ganglion cells are dedicated to single cones, and these groups of cells are called a midget system. Note that light must pass through all layers of the vertebrate retina before it reaches the receptor cells. Passage of light through the retina is assisted by large MuNller cells, neuroglia that act as wave guides.

Figure 36 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 36. Front eyes of four salticids from Oklahoma. 1, Male Phidippus otiosus (Hentz 1846). 2, Male P. mystaceus (Hentz 1846). 3, Male Maevia inclemens. 4, Male Zygoballus rufipes Peckham & Peckham 1885. Diffraction at the surface of the cornea is most evident with diffuse illumination or natural lighting. Photographs ©Thomas Shahan, used and modified under a CC BY 2.0 license.

Figure 34 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 34. Relationship of aperture size to depth of focus and depth of field. 1, We begin by deciding on an acceptable criterion for the separation of incoming light rays in the image space. Then, for a given object the the focal plane is determined by the distance of that object, and the power and refractive index of the lens. For an object, the depth of focus corresponds to the paraxial range of image space over which the separation of light rays from that object meets our criterion. For a focal plane within the retina, the depth of field corresponds to the range of positions in object space from which the separation of light rays meets our criterion. 2, When we reduce the diameter of the aperture, both depth of focus and depth of field increase. Sometimes the depth of focus is defined as the conjugate of depth of field.

Figure 28 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 28. Schematic diagrams showing movement of the long tubes of the AME of Phidippus johnsoni, after Land (1969b), drawn to scale. Land found that his direct measurements of focal length of these eyes were close to calculations that included the negative curvature at the rear of the corneal lens. Radial symmetry of this lens suggests that its ability to focus in not impaired as the eye tube is rotated. 1-3, Horizontal sections depicting a sequence of spontaneous activity, with independent movement of each eye tube. 4-6, Horizontal sections depicting alternating rotation of the eye tubes, in either direction, when the spider is scanning an object. 7-9, Parasagittal sections of one eye, showing up and down movement. 10-12, Parasagittal sections of one eye, showing alternating torsion in either direction.

Figure 54. Lateral eyes and associated neuropiles. 1-2 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 54. Lateral eyes and associated neuropiles. 1-2, Horizontal section (5 μm Epon stained with Toluidine Blue) through a PME of a second instar Phidippus johnsoni, detail in (2). Note the irregular alignment of pigmented glia near the distal margin (facing the lens) of the retina. 3, Schematic cross section of a PLE of Phidippus, after Eakin & Brandenburger 1971. 4, Golgi- Kopsch preparation of interneurons in the primary neuropile (PL1) of the left PLE of a sixth instar P. johnsoni. Several of the interneurons appeared to synapse in more than one place in the highly-structured PL1, but a larger study of this possibility is needed. 5, Contour diagram of the right PL1, sixth instar P. johnsoni (10 μm intervals). 6-11, Parasagittal sections through the PL1 of six different sixth instar P. johnsoni, showing similar convolutions of this neuropile. 4-11, after Hill 2006

Figure 30 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 30. Model of the human eye. 1, The properties (n, refractive index; R, radius; t, thickness) of a series of structures along the optical axis determine how the eye collects and focuses light on the retina. Intraocular muscles can stretch the lens, thus changing the values of R3, R4, t3 and t5, resulting in a change in focal length. This allows the eye to focus light from objects at variable distance (accomodation). 2, Section through stratified cornea. 3-4, Histological (3) and schematic (4) sections through the retina, showing the proximal position of rods and cones, just distal to a basal pigmented layer. Cells to the left in (4) are interneurons. After Gray & Lewis (4, with credit to Cajal) 1918; Charman 1991; Gross et al. 2008; Katz & Kruger 2009.

Figure 8 in Tropical Asian jumping spiders of the genus Viciria (Araneae: Salticidae: Viciriini)

Figure 8. Four different female Viciria pavesii, tending their broods on the underside of a leaf. 1-3, Recently deposited eggs held by a thin silk mesh, with the female in a characteristic guardian position. 4, Female guarding a brood that is beginning to hatch. Photo credits (all modified): 1, © Albert Kang; 2, © Lim Hong Yao; 3, © Cheong Weei Gan; 4, © Goh C. Y. Richard; all posted on iNaturalist, used under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license.

Figure 60 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 60. Yaw or ρ turns executed by various animals as they observe a subject of interest. These turns should improve binocular vision by increasing relevant sampling along a line or edge (Lam et al. 2008). 1-2, Diagram of a ρ turn by a salticid (Hill 2010a). 3-6, Sequential frames showing execution of a ρ turn by a female Colonus sylvanus (South Carolina). 7-9, Three Phidippus species after execution of a ρ turn. 10-12, Two owls and a monkey similarly engaged.

Figure 7. Adult male Viciria pavesii. 1 in Tropical Asian jumping spiders of the genus Viciria (Araneae: Salticidae: Viciriini)

Figure 7. Adult male Viciria pavesii. 1, Note the crest behind the posterior eye row. This character is variable. 2, Note

Figure 3 in Tropical Asian jumping spiders of the genus Viciria (Araneae: Salticidae: Viciriini)

Figure 3. Published figures depicting Viciria praemandibularis (1-3) and V. pavesii (4-5), with attribution. No drawings are available for the type of V. praemandibularis, and (3) represents a male specimen that is similar to V. pavesii. The lateral extension of the paturon of the male, beyond the articulation of the fang (2-e, 5-fig. 9) is a distinctive character of both "species," and the description of the female V. pavesii clearly agrees with the (now) well-known, but undescribed, female of V. praemandibularis. Figures 3-5 © J. Pro;szyn;ski, used with permission, with modified captions.

Figure 27 in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 27. Movement of the AME eye tubes of adult male (1-5) and female (6-10) Lyssomanes viridis from Greenville County, South Carolina, as seen from the front. When these spiders are looking directly at the camera, the AME is completely black in appearance. These examples show both parallel and independent movement of the two AME.

Figure 25. Simple apparatus built with a in Neurobiology and vision of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

Figure 25. Simple apparatus built with a balloon to represent the eye tube of the right AME, a roll of paper to secure the anterior end of the tube, and attached rubber bands used to model the action of each of the four (1-4) extraocular muscles, as well as the two circular ocular muscles (5, 6). Muscle numbers correspond to those assigned by Land (1969b). By pulling on one or more rubber bands, the likely action of the respective muscles could be observed directly. The action of the circular muscles was more challenging to model, but I was able to simulate their contraction by pulling the ends against a loop in the middle of each band.