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3,484 results for “Plastics”
Data from: Phenotypic plasticity and adaptive evolution contribute to advancing flowering phenology in response to climate change
Anthropogenic climate change has already altered the timing of major life history transitions, such as the initiation of reproduction. Both phenotypic plasticity and adaptive evolution can underlie rapid phenological shifts in response to climate change but their relative contributions are poorly understood. Here, we combine a continuous 38-year field survey with quantitative genetic field experiments to assess adaptation in the context of climate change. We focused on Boechera stricta (Brassicaeae), a mustard native to the U.S. Rocky Mountains. Flowering phenology advanced significantly from 1973-2011, and was strongly associated with warmer temperatures and earlier snowmelt dates. Strong directional selection favored earlier flowering in contemporary environments (2010-2011). Climate change could drive this directional selection, and promote even earlier flowering as temperatures continue to increase. Our quantitative genetic analyses predict a response to selection of 0.2 to 0.5 days acceleration in flowering per generation, which could account for more than 20% of the phenological change observed in the long-term dataset. However, the strength of directional selection and the predicted evolutionary response are likely much greater now than even 30 years ago because of rapidly changing climatic conditions. We predict that adaptation will likely be necessary for long-term in situ persistence in the context of climate change.
Data from: Morphological novelty emerges from pre-existing phenotypic plasticity
Plasticity-first evolution (PFE) posits that novel features arise when selection refines pre-existing phenotypic plasticity into an adaptive phenotype. However, PFE is controversial because few tests have been conducted in natural populations. Here we present evidence that PFE fostered the origin of an evolutionary novelty that allowed certain amphibians to invade a new niche—a distinctive carnivore morph. We compared morphology, gene expression and growth of three species of spadefoot toad tadpoles when reared on alternative diets: Scaphiopus holbrookii, which (like most frogs) never produce carnivores; Spea multiplicata, which sometimes produce carnivores, but only through diet-induced plasticity; and Spea bombifrons, which often produce carnivores regardless of diet. Consistent with PFE, we found diet-induced plasticity—in morphology and gene expression—in Sc. holbrookii, adaptive refinement of this plasticity in Sp. multiplicata, and further refinement of the carnivore phenotype in Sp. bombifrons. Generally, phenotypic plasticity might play a significant, if underappreciated, role in evolutionary innovation.
Data from: Genetic correlations among developmental and contextual behavioral plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster
Correlations among traits, including behaviors, are important because traits that are genetically correlated may not evolve independently. Recently, behavioral correlations research has expanded to include correlations not only in mean-level behaviors, but also in behavioral plasticity, i.e., the degree to which individuals change their behavior in response to environmental stimuli. Positive correlations among behavioral plasticities would imply that individuals or genotypes that are behaviorally plastic in one way may also be plastic in other ways; negative correlations could imply tradeoffs. Here, we examine aversive odor conditioning (learning) at two time points, and plasticity in pupation site selection behavior across substrates, in a panel of Drosophila genotypes. These behaviors represent different types of behavioral plasticity: contextual plasticity describes behavioral responses to stimuli that are currently present, while developmental plasticity describes behavioral responses to remembered experiences with stimuli in the recent past. We find that learning scores and plasticity in pupation site selection behavior are positively genetically correlated, representing the first example of a genetic correlation between developmental and contextual plasticity. These findings imply that ecological and evolutionary theories focusing on variation in a single dimension of behavioral plasticity may be incomplete.
Data from: Using time series analysis to characterize evolutionary and plastic responses to environmental change: a case study of a shift toward earlier migration date in sockeye salmon
Environmental change can shift the phenotype of an organism through either evolutionary or nongenetic processes. Despite abundant evidence of phenotypic change in response to recent climate change, we typically lack sufficient genetic data to identify the role of evolution. We present a method of using phenotypic data to characterize the hypothesized role of natural selection and environmentally driven phenotypic shifts (plasticity). We modeled historical selection and environmental predictors of interannual variation in mean population phenotype using a multivariate state-space model framework. Through model comparisons, we assessed the extent to which an estimated selection differential explained observed variation better than environmental factors alone. We applied the method to a 60-year trend toward earlier migration in Columbia River sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka, producing estimates of annual selection differentials, average realized heritability, and relative cumulative effects of selection and plasticity. We found that an evolutionary response to thermal selection was capable of explaining up to two-thirds of the phenotypic trend. Adaptive plastic responses to June river flow explain most of the remainder. This method is applicable to other populations with time series data if selection differentials are available or can be reconstructed. This method thus augments our toolbox for predicting responses to environmental change.
Data from: Comparative modelling of crack propagation in elastic-plastic materials using meshfree LRPIM and XFEM
<p>The modelling of crack propagation for elastic-plastic materials is critical in various engineering applications, such as safety analysis of concrete structures and stability analysis of rock slopes. Combined with elastic-plastic theory and fracture mechanics, the local radial basis point Interpolation method (LRPIM)has the ability to analyse crack propagation in elastic-plastic materials. Crack propagation in elastic-plastic materials is compared using the LRPIM and Extended Finite Element method (XFEM). The comparative investigation indicates that: (1) The LRPIM results are close to the model test results, which indicates that it is feasible for analysing crack growth of elastic-plastic materials. (2) Compared with the LRPIM, the XFEM results are closer to the experimental results, showing that the XFEM has higher accuracy and computational efficiency. (3) Compared with the XFEM, when the LRPIM method is used to analyse crack propagation, the propagation path is not smooth enough, which can be explained that the crack tip stress and strain not being accurate enough.</p>
Data from: Ancestral plasticity and allometry in threespine stickleback reveal phenotypes associated with derived, freshwater ecotypes
For over a century, evolutionary biologists have debated whether and how phenotypic plasticity impacts the processes of adaptation and diversification. The empirical tests required to resolve these issues have proven elusive, mainly because it requires documentation of ancestral reaction norms, a difficult prospect where many ancestors are either extinct or have evolved. The threespine stickleback radiation is not limited in this regard, making it an ideal system in which to address general questions regarding the role of plasticity in adaptive evolution. As retreating ice sheets have exposed new habitats, oceanic stickleback founded innumerable freshwater populations, many of which have evolved parallel adaptations to their new environments. Because the founding oceanic population is extant, we can directly evaluate whether specific patterns of ancestral phenotypic expression in the context of novel environments (plasticity), or over ontogeny, predisposed the repeated evolution of "benthic" and "limnetic" ecotypes in shallow and deep lakes, respectively. Consistent with this hypothesis, we found that oceanic stickleback raised in a complex habitat and fed a macroinvertebrate diet expressed traits resembling derived, benthic fish. Alternatively, when reared in a simple environment on a diet of zooplankton, oceanic stickleback developed phenotypes resembling derived, limnetic fish. As fish in both treatments grew, their body depths increased allometrically, as did the size of their mouths, while their eyes became relatively smaller. Allometric trajectories were subtly but significantly impacted by rearing environment. Thus, both environmental and allometric influences on development, along with their interactive effects, produced variation in phenotypes consistent with derived benthic and limnetic fish, which may have predisposed the repeated genetic accommodation of this specific suite of traits. We also found significant shape differences between marine and anadromous stickleback, which has implications for evaluating the ancestral state of stickleback traits.
Contribution of genetic versus plastic responses to adaptive patterns in a widespread butterfly along a latitudinal cline
<p>Understanding how organisms adapt to complex environments is a central goal of evolutionary biology and ecology. This issue is of special interest in the current era of rapidly changing climatic conditions. Here, we investigate clinal variation and plastic responses in life history, morphology, and physiology in the butterfly <i>Pieris napi</i> along a pan-European gradient by exposing butterflies raised in captivity to different temperatures. We found clinal variation in body size, growth rates and concomitant development time, wing aspect ratio, wing melanisation, and heat tolerance. Individuals from warmer environments were more heat-tolerant, had less melanised wings and a shorter development but still they were larger than individuals from cooler environments. These findings suggest selection for rapid growth in the warmth and for wing melanisation in the cold, and thus fine-tuned genetic adaptation to local climates. Irrespective of the origin of butterflies, the effects of higher developmental temperature were largely as expected, speeding up development, reducing body size, potential metabolic activity, and wing melanisation, while increasing heat tolerance. At least in part, these patterns likely reflect adaptive phenotypic plasticity. In summary, our study revealed pronounced plastic and genetic responses, which may indicate high adaptive capacities in our study organism. Whether this may help such species though to deal with current climate change needs further investigation, as clinal patterns have typically evolved over long periods.</p>
Data from: Brain plasticity over the metamorphic boundary: carry-over effect of larval environment on froglet brain development
Brain development shows high plasticity in response to environmental heterogeneity. However, it is unknown how environmental variation during development may affect brain architecture across life history switch points in species with complex life cycles. Previously, we showed that predation and competition affect brain development in common frog (Rana temporaria) tadpoles. Here, we studied if larval environment had carry-over effects in brains of metamorphs. Tadpoles grown at high density had large optic tecta at metamorphosis, while tadpoles grown under predation risk had small diencephala. We found that larval density had a carry-over effect on froglet optic tectum size, while the effect of larval predation risk had vanished by metamorphosis. We discuss the possibility that the observed changes may be adaptive, reflecting the needs of an organism in given environmental and developmental contexts.
Data from: Genetic inheritance and environment determine endocrine plasticity to urban living
As urban areas continue to expand globally, understanding how and why species respond to novel habitats becomes increasingly important. Knowledge of the mechanisms behind observed phenotypic changes in urban animals will enable us to better evaluate the impact of urbanization on current and future generations of wildlife. Physiological changes, such as those involved in the endocrine stress response, may allow individuals to inhabit and thrive in urbanized areas, but it is currently unknown how these changes arise in natural populations. In this study, we performed a 4-way crossfoster experiment in free-living house wren chicks, Troglodytes aedon, to disentangle whether differences in baseline corticosterone between urban and rural individuals is a result of genetic and/or plastic mechanisms during development. We found that urban chicks already had higher corticosterone levels than their rural counterparts on the day they hatched, which suggests a possible genetic component to the corticosterone phenotype. However, rural offspring that were moved to an urban environment significantly increased their corticosterone levels, mimicking those of urban offspring. Our findings suggest that, although differences in baseline corticosterone concentrations between urban and rural individuals may have a genetic component, plasticity plays a pivotal role and can modify the corticosterone phenotype in response to the environment experienced in the first two weeks of life.
Data from: Disentangling plastic and genetic changes in body mass of Siberian jays
Spatial and temporal phenotypic differentiation in mean body size is of commonplace occurrence, but the underlying causes remain often unclear: both genetic differentiation in response to selection (or drift) and environmentally induced plasticity can create similar phenotypic patterns. Studying changes in body mass in Siberian jays (Perisoreus infaustus) over three decades, we discovered that mean body mass declined drastically (ca. 10%) over the first two decades, but increased markedly thereafter back to almost the initial level. Quantitative genetic analyses revealed that although body mass was heritable (h2 = 0.46), the pronounced temporal decrease in body mass was mainly a product of phenotypic plasticity. However, a concomitant and statistically significant decrease in predicted breeding values suggests a genetic component to this change. The subsequent increase in mean body mass was indicated to be entirely due to plasticity. Selection on body mass was estimated to be too weak to fully account for the observed genetic decline in body mass, but bias in selection differential estimates due to environmental covariance between body mass and fitness is possible. Hence, the observed body mass changes appear to be driven mainly by phenotypic plasticity. Although we were not able to identify the ecological driver of the observed plastic changes, the results highlight the utility of quantitative genetic approaches in disentangling genetic and phenotypic changes in natural populations.
Data from: Heat tolerance in Drosophila subobscura along a latitudinal gradient: contrasting patterns between plastic and genetic responses
Susceptibility to global warming relies on how thermal tolerances respond to increasing temperatures through plasticity or evolution. Climatic adaptation can be assessed examining the geographic variation in thermal-related traits. We studied latitudinal patterns in heat tolerance in Drosophila subobscura reared at two temperatures. We used four static stressful temperatures to estimate the thermal death time curves (TDT), and two ramping assays with fast and slow heating rates. TDT curves allow estimating the critical thermal maximum CTmax, by extrapolating to the temperature that would knockdown the flies almost 'instantaneously', and the thermal sensitivity to increasing stressful temperatures. We found a positive latitudinal cline for CTmax, but no clinal pattern for knockdown temperatures estimated from the ramping assays. Although high-latitude populations were more tolerant to an acute heat stress, they were also more sensitive to prolonged exposure to less stressful temperatures, supporting a trade-off between acute and chronic heat tolerances. Conversely, developmental plasticity did not affect CTmax but increased the tolerance to chronic heat exposition. The patterns observed from the TDT curves help to understand why the relationship between heat tolerance and latitude depends on the methodology used and, therefore, these curves provide a more complete and reliable measurement of heat tolerance.
Data from: Shaping development through mechanical strain: the transcriptional basis of diet-induced phenotypic plasticity in a cichlid fish
Adaptive phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an organism to change its phenotype to match local environments, is increasingly recognized for its contribution to evolution. However, few empirical studies have explored the molecular basis of plastic traits. The East African cichlid fish Astatoreochromis alluaudi displays adaptive phenotypic plasticity in its pharyngeal jaw apparatus, a structure that is widely seen as an evolutionary key innovation that has contributed to the remarkable diversity of cichlid fishes. It has previously been shown that in response to different diets, the pharyngeal jaws change their size, shape and dentition: hard diets induce an adaptive robust molariform tooth phenotype with short jaws and strong internal bone structures, while soft diets induce a gracile papilliform tooth phenotype with elongated jaws and slender internal bone structures. To gain insight into the molecular underpinnings of these adaptations and enable future investigations of the role that phenotypic plasticity plays during the formation of adaptive radiations, the transcriptomes of the two divergent jaw phenotypes were examined. Our study identified a total of 187 genes whose expression differs in response to hard and soft diets, including immediate early genes, extracellular matrix genes and inflammatory factors. Transcriptome results are interpreted in light of expression of candidate genes—markers for tooth size and shape, bone cells and mechanically sensitive pathways. This study opens up new avenues of research at new levels of biological organization into the roles of phenotypic plasticity during speciation and radiation of cichlid fishes.
Data from: The secret life of ground squirrels: accelerometry reveals sex-dependent plasticity in above-ground activity
The sexes differ in how and when they allocate energy towards reproduction, but how this influences phenotypic plasticity in daily activity patterns is unclear. Here, we use collar-mounted light loggers and triaxial accelerometers to examine factors that affect time spent above ground and overall dynamic body acceleration (ODBA), an index of activity-specific energy expenditure, across the active season of free-living, semi-fossorial arctic ground squirrels (Urocitellus parryii). We found high day-to-day variability in time spent above ground and ODBA with most of the variance explained by environmental conditions known to affect thermal exchange. In both years, females spent more time below ground compared with males during parturition and early lactation; however, this difference was fourfold larger in the second year, possibly, because females were in better body condition. Daily ODBA positively correlated with time spent above ground in both sexes, but females were more active per unit time above ground. Consequently, daily ODBA did not differ between the sexes when females were early in lactation, even though females were above ground three to six fewer hours each day. Further, on top of having the additional burden of milk production, ODBA data indicate females also had fragmented rest patterns and were more active during late lactation. Our results indicate that sex differences in reproductive requirements can have a substantial influence on activity patterns, but the size of this effect may be dependent on capital resources accrued during gestation.
Data from: Adaptive phenotypic plasticity and local adaptation for temperature tolerance in freshwater zooplankton
Many organisms have geographical distributions extending from the tropics to near polar regions or can experience up to 30°C temperature variation within the lifespan of an individual. Two forms of evolutionary adaptation to such wide ranges in ambient temperatures are frequently discussed: local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity. The freshwater planktonic crustacean Daphnia magna, whose range extends from South Africa to near arctic sites, shows strong phenotypic and genotypic variation in response to temperature. In this study, we use D. magna clones from 22 populations (one clone per population) ranging from latitude 0° (Kenya) to 66° North (White Sea) to explore the contributions of phenotypic plasticity and local adaptation to high temperature tolerance. Temperature tolerance was studied as knockout time (time until immobilization, Timm) at 37°C in clones acclimatized to either 20°C or 28°C. Acclimatization to 28°C strongly increased Timm, testifying to adaptive phenotypic plasticity. At the same time, Timm significantly correlated with average high temperature at the clones' sites of origin, suggesting local adaptation. As earlier studies have found that haemoglobin expression contributes to temperature tolerance, we also quantified haemoglobin concentration in experimental animals and found that both acclimatization temperature (AccT) and temperature at the site of origin are positively correlated with haemoglobin concentration. Furthermore, Daphnia from warmer climates upregulate haemoglobin much more strongly in response to AccT, suggesting local adaptation for plasticity in haemoglobin expression. Our results show that both local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity contribute to temperature tolerance, and elucidate a possible role of haemoglobin in mediating these effects that differs along a cold–warm gradient.
Data from: A novel report of hatching plasticity in the phylum Echinodermata
Hatching plasticity occurs in response to a wide range of stimuli across many animal taxa, including annelids, arthropods, mollusks, and chordates. Despite the prominence of echinoderms in developmental biology and more than 100 years of detailed examination of their development under a variety of conditions, environmentally cued hatching plasticity has never been reported in the phylum Echinodermata. Here we report plasticity in the timing and stage of hatching of embryos of the sand dollar Echinarachnius parma in response to reductions in salinity. Embryos of E. parma increased their time to hatching more than twofold in response to ecologically relevant salinity reductions, while maintaining an otherwise normal developmental schedule. Embryos that experienced the greatest delay in hatching time emerged from the fertilization envelope as four-arm pluteus larvae rather than hatching as blastulae or early gastrulae. Salinity manipulations across multiple male-female pairs indicated high variability in hatching time both within and among clutches, suggesting significant intraspecific variation in developmental responses to salinity.
Data from: Cardiac plasticity influences aerobic performance and thermal tolerance in a tropical, freshwater fish at elevated temperatures
Fishes faced with novel thermal conditions often modify physiological functioning to compensate for elevated temperatures. This physiological plasticity (thermal acclimation) has been shown to improve metabolic performance and extend thermal limits in many species. Adjustments in cardiorespiratory function are often invoked as mechanisms underlying thermal plasticity because limitations in oxygen supply have been predicted to define thermal optima in fishes, however few studies have explicitly linked cardiorespiratory plasticity to metabolic compensation. Here we quantify thermal acclimation capacity in the commercially harvested Nile perch (Lates niloticus) of East Africa, and investigate mechanisms underlying observed changes. We reared juvenile Nile perch for 3 months under two temperature regimes, and then measured a series of metabolic traits (e.g., aerobic scope, AS) and critical thermal maximum (CTmax) upon acute exposure to a range of experimental temperatures. We also measured morphological traits of heart ventricles, gills, and brains to identify potential mechanisms for compensation. We found that long-term (3-months) exposure to elevated temperature induced compensation in upper thermal tolerance (CTmax) and metabolic performance (SMR, MMR and AS), and induced cardiac remodeling in Nile perch. Furthermore, variation in heart morphology influenced variations in metabolic function and thermal tolerance. These results indicate that plastic changes enacted over longer exposures lead to differences in metabolic flexibility when acutely exposed to temperature variation. Furthermore, we established functional links between cardiac plasticity, metabolic performance, and thermal tolerance, providing evidence that plasticity in cardiac capacity may be one mechanism for coping with climate change.
Data from: Highest plasticity of carbon concentrating mechanisms in earliest evolved phytoplankton
Phytoplankton photosynthesis strongly relies on the operation of carbon‐concentrating mechanisms (CCMs) to accumulate CO2 around their carboxylating enzyme ribulose‐1,5‐bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO). Earlier evolved phytoplankton groups were shown to exhibit higher CCM activities to compensate for their RuBisCO with low CO2 specificities. Here, we tested whether earlier evolved phytoplankton groups also exhibit a higher CCM plasticity. To this end, we collected data from literature and applied a Bayesian linear meta‐analytic model. Our results show that with elevated pCO2, photosynthetic CO2 affinities decreased strongest and most consistent for the earlier evolved groups, i.e., cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates, while CO2‐dependent changes in affinities for haptophytes and diatoms were smaller and less consistent. In addition, responses of maximum photosynthetic rates toward elevated pCO2 were generally small and inconsistent across species. Our results demonstrate that phytoplankton groups with an earlier origin possess a high CCM plasticity, whereas more recently evolved groups do not, which likely results from evolved differences in the CO2 specificity of RuBisCO.
Data from: Demographic plasticity facilitates ecological and economic resilience in a commercially important reef fish
1. Variation in life-history characteristics is evident within and across animal populations. Such variation is mediated by environmental gradients and reflects metabolic constraints or trade-offs that enhance reproductive outputs. While generalizations of life-history relationships across species provide a framework for predicting vulnerability to overexploitation, deciphering patterns of intraspecific variation may also enable recognition of peculiar features of populations that facilitate ecological resilience. 2. This study combines age-based biological data from geographically disparate populations of bluespine unicornfish (Naso unicornis)—the most commercially-valuable reef-associated species in the insular Indo-Pacific—to explore the magnitude and drivers of variation in life span and examine the mechanisms enabling peculiar mortality schedules. 3. Longevity and mortality schedules were investigated across eleven locations encompassing a range of latitudes and exploitation levels. The presence of different growth types was examined using back-calculated growth histories from otoliths. Growth-type dependent mortality (mortality rates associated with particular growth trajectories) was corroborated using population models that incorporated size-dependent competition. 4. We found a threefold geographic variation in life span that was strongly linked to temperature, but not to anthropogenic pressure or ocean productivity. All populations consistently displayed a two-phase mortality schedule, with higher than expected natural mortality rates in earlier stages of post-settlement life. Reconstructed growth histories and population models demonstrated that variable growth types within populations can yield this peculiar biphasic mortality schedule, where fast growers enjoy early reproductive outputs at the expense of greater mortality, and benefits for slow growers derive from extended reproductive outputs over a greater number of annual cycles. This promotes population resilience because individuals can take advantage of cycles of environmental change operating at both short and long-term scales. 5. Our results highlight a prevailing, fundamental misperception when comparing the life histories of long-lived tropical ectotherms: the seemingly incongruent combination of extended life spans with high mortality rates was enabled by coexistence of variable growth types in a population. Thus a demographic profile incorporating contrasting growth and mortality strategies obscures the demographic effects of harvest across space or time in N. unicornis and possibly other ectotherms with the combination of longevity and asymptotic growth.
Data from: A DNA metabarcoding study of a primate dietary diversity and plasticity across its entire fragmented range
In tropical regions, most primary ecosystems have been replaced by mosaic landscapes in which species must cope with a large shift in the distribution of their habitat and associated food resources. Primates are particularly vulnerable to habitat modifications. Most species persist in small fragments surrounded by complex human-mediated matrices whose structure and connectivity may strongly influence their dispersal and feeding behavior. Behavioral plasticity appears to be a crucial parameter governing the ability of organisms to exploit the resources offered by new matrix habitats and thus to persist in fragmented habitats. In this study, we were interested in the dietary plasticity of the golden-crowned sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli), an endangered species of lemur, found only in the Daraina region in north-eastern Madagascar. We used a DNA-based approach combining the barcoding concept and Illumina next-generation sequencing to (i) describe the species diet across its entire range and (ii) evaluate the influence of landscape heterogeneity on diet diversity and composition. Faeces from 96 individuals were sampled across the entire species range and their contents were analyzed using the trnL metabarcoding approach. In parallel, we built a large DNA reference database based on a checklist of the plant species of the Daraina region. Our results suggest that golden-crowned sifakas exhibit remarkable dietary diversity with at least 130 plant species belonging to 80 genera and 49 different families. We highlighted an influence of both habitat type and openness on diet composition suggesting a high flexibility of foraging strategies. Moreover, we observed the presence of numerous cultivated and naturalized plants in the faeces of groups living in forest edge areas. Overall, our findings support our initial expectation that P. tattersalli is able to cope with the current level of alteration of the landscape and confirm our previous results on the distribution and the dispersal ability of this species.
Data from: Experimental evolution across different thermal regimes yields genetic divergence in recombination fraction but no divergence in temperature-associated plastic recombination
Phenotypic plasticity is pervasive in nature. One mechanism underlying the evolution and maintenance of such plasticity is environmental heterogeneity. Indeed, theory indicates that both spatial and temporal variation in the environment should favor the evolution of phenotypic plasticity under a variety of conditions. The frequency of recombination in the model system Drosophila melanogaster has long been known to exhibit phenotypic plasticity in response to temperature. Here were use a panel of replicated experimental evolution populations of D. melanogaster to test whether variable environments favor enhanced plasticity in recombination rate in response to temperature. In contrast to expectation, we find no evidence for enhanced plasticity in recombination in the variable environment lines. Our data confirm a role of temperature in mediating recombination fraction in D. melanogaster, and indicate that recombination is genetically and plastically depressed under lower temperatures. Our data further suggest that the genetic architectures underlying plastic recombination and population-level variation in recombination rate are likely to be distinct.
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