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Fig. 13 in An early Late Triassic long-necked reptile with a bony pectoral shield and gracile appendages

Fig. 13. Restoration of the skeleton of long-necked reptile Ozimek volans gen. et sp. nov. in a gliding pose; left lateral (A) and ventral (B) views.

Fig. 2 in An early Late Triassic long-necked reptile with a bony pectoral shield and gracile appendages

Fig. 2. Camera lucida drawings of ZPAL AbIII/2012, incomplete articulated skeleton of long-necked reptile Ozimek volans gen. et sp. nov. (see photographs Fig. 3). Neck with skull (A), skull (B), and torax (C).

Fig. 8 in An early Late Triassic long-necked reptile with a bony pectoral shield and gracile appendages

Fig. 8. Tomographic three-dimensional representations of the skull bones of ZPAL AbIII/3191 long-necked reptile Ozimek volans gen. et sp. nov. in their proposed original arrangement (A–E) and restorations of the skull (F–H); in lateral (A, F), dorsal (B, G), palatal (C, H), posterior (D), and anterior (E) views. F–H not to scale.

Fig. 6 in An early Late Triassic long-necked reptile with a bony pectoral shield and gracile appendages

Fig. 6. Partially articulated skeleton ZPAL AbIII/2511 of long-necked reptile Ozimek volans gen. et sp. nov. from Krasiejów, lower Upper Triassic, preserved in claystone (see Fig. 4 for camera lucida interpretive drawings). A. Proximal part of the neck and anterior part of the thorax. B. Disarticulated long bones and part of thorax (probably from above). Photograph of specimen coated with ammonium chloride (A2).

Fig. 10 in An early Late Triassic long-necked reptile with a bony pectoral shield and gracile appendages

Fig. 10. Restoration of postcervical vertebrae of long-necked reptile Ozimek volans gen. et sp. nov. Dorsal 1 with ribs (A), dorsals 2–16 (B–N), based on ZPAL AbIII/2511, /2512, /3191. Sacrals 1–3 (O–Q), based on ZPAL AbIII/2511. Caudals 1, 2, 4 (R–T), caudal 6 with chevron (U), based on ZPAL AbIII/2512. In anterior (A1–D1, P2, Q2), left lateral (A2–D2, E1–T1), and dorsal (A3–D3, E2–N2, P3–R3), posterior (O2, P2, R2, S2, T2, U1), and ventral (O3, R4, S3, T3, U2) views.

Fig. 11 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 11. Lifestyle strategies in plesiosaurs. A. Feeding beneath the body on mesoscopic prey (average diameter 5–10 mm and 100–200 mm), probably shoaling within the water column. B. Feeding on similar sized prey from within soft sediments. C. The escape response, with the neck approximately straight in front of the body, and held rigid by the presence of a dorsal ligament system, thereby permitting relatively rapid motion with minimal muscular effort to hold the head and neck anterior of the locomotor apparatus. Images from LFN drawings.

Fig. 9 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 9. The range of movement available to the plesiosaur neck in Seeleyosaurus (formerly Plesiosaurus guilelmi imperatoris) (A, B) and Elasmosaurus C) as illustrated by Zarnik (1925–1926), which is radically different from that proposed in the present paper. A. Right lateral view showing neutral position (A2), interpreted maximum dorsal (A1) and ventral (A3) flexion. B, C. Dorsal view, showing the neutral position (B2, C2), extreme left lateral flexion B2, C2), and maximum sinusoidal alternating lateral flexion (B3, C3). Images from Zarnik (1925–1926: figs. 18–20).

Fig. 10 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 10. The range of movement available to the plesiosaur neck. A. Sketch of living or plesiosaur illustrating the three senses of motion (roll, pitch, and yaw) potentially available at each vertebral junction. B. Enhanced dorsoventral movement produced by the laterally expanded articular face of a post-axial cervical vertebrae. Note how more of the same length arrows project dorsoventrally than laterally, indicating greater potential for flexibility in dorsoventral pitch that lateral yaw. C. The potential range of movement available at a plesiosaur posterior-cervical vertebra, where freedom of movement is greatest dorsolaterally between the neural spine and cervical ribs, or ventrally between the cervical ribs, in the same way a tripod is more likely to fall over between two of the legs than over one of them. Once the anatomy of the zygapophyses, neural spines, and cervical ribs are taken into account, the movement is restricted to the ventral direction. Images from: C, Andrews (1910: pl. 7: 4); A, B, LFN drawings.

Fig. 8 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 8. Skeletal reconstruction of Muraenosaurus and articulated vertebrae of Muraenosaurus beloclis in right lateral view. A. Skeleton showing the approximate locations of the vertebral series (B–D). B. Articulated atlas-axis complex and C3–C17. C. Articulated series of 12 mid-cervical vertebrae. D. Posterior cervical vertebrae. B–D reversed to match skeleton above. Images from: A, Andrews (1910: fig. 66) with the newly reconstructed head based on Evans (1999); B–D, Andrews (1910: pl. 7: 5, 3).

Fig. 6 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 6. Skeletal reconstruction and vertebrae of plesiosaur Muraenosaurus from the Oxford Clay Formation, Callovian-Oxfordian near Peterborough, UK. A. Skeleton showing regions of the vertebral column and approximate locations of illustrated vertebrae (B–H). B. Atlas-axis complex in left lateral (B1) and anterior (B2) views. C. Anterior cervical vertebrae in left lateral (C1) and posterior (C2) views. D. Posterior cervical vertebrae (possibly C34 and C35) in left lateral (D1) and posterior (D2) views. E. The last two pectoral and first dorsal vertebrae in left lateral view. F. Anterior dorsal vertebra in anterior view. G. Mid-dorsal vertebra in anterior view. H. Posterior dorsal vertebra in left lateral view. Note: the skeletal reconstruction is inaccurate: Andrews (1910) indicates the presence of 43–44 cervicals, 2–3 pectorals, 20 dorsals, 3–4 sacrals and an unknown number of caudals, whereas Brown (1981b) counted 43–44 cervicals, 3 pectorals, 19–20 dorsals, 4 sacrals and 24 caudals, however, Andrews (1910) illustrates the presence of 44 cervicals, 3 pectorals, 25 dorsals, 3 sacrals, and 30 caudals, thereby making both the body and the tail too long; no attempt has been made to correct this. Abbreviations: circles, indicate approximate position of figured vertebrae, as the serial position is not indicated; brackets, indicate known position of vertebrae figured. Images from: A, Andrews (1910: fig. 66) with the newly reconstructed head based on Evans (1999); B, Andrews (1910: fig. 49) with lateral view reversed from original to match skeletal reconstruction; C–H, Andrews (1910: fig. 50–55).

Fig. 5 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 5. Reconstructions of skulls (A–C, in left lateral view) and teeth (D– G, in axial view, with lingual surface to the right) of plesiosaurs from the Oxford Clay Formation, Callovian and Oxfordian. A, E. Muraenosaurus leedsi. B, F. Cryptoclidus oxoniensis. C, G. Tricleidus seeleyi. D. Generalized plesiosaur tooth showing overall morphology. Images from: A, Evans (1999); B, Brown and Cruickshank (1994: fig. 5); C, Brown (1981b: fig. 22); D, LFN drawings; E, Brown (1981b: fig. 19a, modified); F, Brown (1981b: fig. 5) with additional information from Andrews (1910); G, Brown (1981b: fig. 24a). Scale bars A–C, 50 mm, E–G, 10 mm, D not to scale.

Fig. 4 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 4. Reconstructions of the cranium and mandible of the plesiosaur Muraenosaurus leedsi from the Oxford Clay Formation, Callovian and Oxfordian, showing overall proportions and construction, and highlighting areas mentioned in the text. A. Dorsal view. B. Left lateral view. C. Ventral view with mandible removed (upper half) and mandible shaded grey (lower half). D. Posterior view with mandible shown disarticulated. Images modified from: A, Evans (1999); B, Evans (1999) with dentition added based on information from Andrews (1913) and Brown (1981b); C, D, compiled from LFN drawings and Andrews (1910), Brown (1981b), and Evans (1999).

Fig. 2 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 2. One of the potential problems of a long neck in plesiosaurs, as envisaged by Henry de la Beche (painted in 1830) in Duria Antiquior. The large ichthyosaur (now Temnodontosaurus platydon) (D), bites the neck of the plesiosaur Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus (C), a common weak point for predatory attacks. Notice also the second plesiosaur (A) swimming within the water column, which together with the third (B, neck and head only shown), which are both attacking prey above the air-water interface (biting the tail of a crocodile and catching a flying pterosaur, respectively). Image courtesy and copyright of the National Museum of Wales (UK).

Fig. 3 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 3. Previous hypotheses of neck function of plesiosaurs. A. An unnamed plesiosaur (possibly Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus) swimming at the sea surface and preying on a pterosaur (note this duplicates the concept illustrated in Fig. 2B). B. Plesiosaurus guilelmi imperatoris (now genus Seeleyosaurus) with neck curved dorsally and swimming at the surface, and Thaumatosaurus victor (now genus Meyerasaurus) with neck held straight and chasing fish underwater. C. Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus swimming at the water surface, possibly scanning for submerged prey. D. Elasmosaurus platyurus uses its neck to hunt fish close to the ocean surface. Note a similar pose in the individual in the far distance (white arrow), but the almost vertical position of the neck in the individual in the centre right (black arrow). E. Elasmosaurus (white arrow) swimming beneath the surface and apparently feeding on benthic prey, with Clidastes (a mosasaur) catching a fish (black arrow). F. Three individuals of Elasmosaurus chasing down the flightless marine bird Hesperornis. Images from: A, Richardson (1851: frontispiece, "designed, drawn and engraved by Mr Nibbs"); B, Winkler (1873: "Le plésiosaure"); C, Hutchinson 1897: pl. 13, detail); D, E, Williston (1914: fig. 31 and 33, respectively); F, from Osborn (1918: fig. 86, upper part, drawn by W.K. Gregory from data by Williston 1914).

Fig. 1 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 1. Body outlines of large (> 1 m total body length) extinct and extant vertebrates, primarily or secondarily adapted to the marine environment. A. Plesiosaurus sp., an extinct Jurassic plesiosauromorph plesiosaur. B. Thunnus thynnus, the extant Atlantic bluefin tuna, a teleost "fish". C. Carcharodon carcharias, the extant great white shark. D. Hydrurga leptonyx, the extant leopard seal. E. Physeter macrocephalus, the extant sperm whale. F. Tursiops truncatus, the extant common bottlenose dolphin. G. Platecarpus sp., an extinct Cretaceous mosasaur. H. Ichthyosaurus sp. an extinct Jurassic ichthyosaur. Note how the plesiosaur is the only large marine vertebrate with a long neck. Images not to scale.

Fig. 7 in An integrated approach to understanding the role of the long neck in plesiosaurs

Fig. 7. Cervical vertebrae and cervical centra of plesiosaurs. A. Generalized plesiosaur cervical vertebra showing features mentioned in the text in oblique antero-left lateral view (note: not all features are present in all species). B. Posterior cervical vertebra of Muraenosaurus beloclis illustrating the form as preserved in anterior view (note the wider than high form of the centrum, typical of all plesiosaurs). Illustrative vertical cross-sections through the articular surfaces (to the left) of Muraenosaurus (C) and Cryptoclidus (D), showing variation in cross-sectional shape between genera, which may have affected the range of movement available at contiguous cervical joints (data from Brown 1981b). E. Illustrative articular face of a Cretaceous elasmosaur cervical vertebra, showing the laterally expanded butterfly- or dumbbell-shape. F–I. Views of a generalized plesiosaur cervical centrum (anterior face to the left), showing features mentioned in the text, in anterior (F), dorsal (G), left lateral (H), and ventral (I) views. Images from: B, Andrews (1910: pl. 7: 4); A, C–I, LFN drawings.

Figure 5 in Cephalenchus driekieae n. sp. (Nematoda: Tylenchidae) from South Africa, a new member of the genus with a long pharyngeal overlap

Figure 5: Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus tree inferred from D2-D3 expansion segments of large subunit (LSU) rDNA gene sequence of CephalenChUS dRiekieae n. sp. from South Africa under GTR + I + G model (lnL = 7,632.2964; freqA = 0.1794; freqC = 0.2463; freqG = 0.3573; freqT = 0.2170; rAC = 0.9583; rAG = 2.6626; rAT = 1.2424; rCG = 0.6711; rCT = 5.4981; Pinv = 0.2528; Alpha = 0.6707). Bayesian posterior probability (BPP) values>0.50 are given for appropriate clades. The sequence of the new species is indicated by bold font.

Figure 4 in Cephalenchus driekieae n. sp. (Nematoda: Tylenchidae) from South Africa, a new member of the genus with a long pharyngeal overlap

Figure 4: Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus tree inferred from small subunit (SSU) rDNA gene sequence of CephalenChUS dRiekieae n. sp. from South Africa under GTR + I + G model (lnL = 6,436.7202; freqA = 0.2443; freqC = 0.2268; freqG = 0.2864; freqT = 0.2425; rAC = 1.0699; rAG = 2.8891; rAT = 1.2180; rCG = 1.1273; rCT = 5.8691; Pinv = 0.4073; Alpha = 0.6044). Bayesian posterior probability (BPP) values>0.50 are given for appropriate clades. The sequence of the new species is indicated by bold font.

Figure 2 in Cephalenchus driekieae n. sp. (Nematoda: Tylenchidae) from South Africa, a new member of the genus with a long pharyngeal overlap

Figure 2: Light micrographs of CephalenChUS dRiekieae n. sp. from South Africa, female. (A) Entire body; (B) pharyngeal region; (C) lateral lines; (D) part of reproduction system; (E) anterior region; (F) pharyngeal overlap; (G) tail; (H) tail terminus. (Scale bars = 10 µm).

Figure 3 in Cephalenchus driekieae n. sp. (Nematoda: Tylenchidae) from South Africa, a new member of the genus with a long pharyngeal overlap

Figure 3: Scanning electron microscopy of CephalenChUS dRiekieae n. sp. from South Africa, female. (A) Anterior region; (B) lip region; (C) posterior body region; (D, E) vulval region in lateral and ventral view; (F) anus and lateral lines in anus region.