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FIGURE 7 in The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders
FIGURE 7. Newly recognized holotype (ANSP 1228) of Salamandra fusca Green, 1818 in dorsal (a) and ventral (b) view. Recorded in the ANSP catalogue as "P. cinereus" from "New Jersey" originating with "Dr. Bache, Green Collection." No specimens have been associated with this name historically. In particular, we note 14 apparent costal grooves, hind limbs more robust than forelimbs, and apparently partially healed broken tail, linking it to Green (1818)'s description. Primary type of Desmognathus fuscus (Green, 1818).
FIGURE 9 in The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders
FIGURE 9. Green (1827a)'s figure (Pls. 1, 2) of the preserved holotypes of Salamandra jeffersoniana Green, 1827a (USNM 3968; see Fig. 10) and S. porphyritica Green, 1827a (unknown disposition; possibly USNM 3840), drawn by T.R Peale and engraved by P.E. Hamm. Notes and legend cropped from original.
FIGURE 4 in The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders
FIGURE 4. Green (1827a)'s figure (third unnumbered plate) of a "variety" of Salamandra glutinosa Green, 1818, from Washington County, Pennsylvania, drawn by W. Mason and engraved by P.E. Hamm.
FIGURE 3. A in The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders
FIGURE 3. A poorly preserved specimen (USNM 3738) that we are nevertheless comfortable in assigning to Salamandra bislineata Green, 1818. Referred to by Cope (1889) as the "alcoholic type" from "Western Pennsylvania" collected by "Dr. J. Green," which was followed by Stejneger and Barbour (1917, 1933), but not by Cochran (1961) in her list of USNM type material. Based on Green's collections in western Pennsylvania primarily occurring after 1826, we do not consider this part of the original type series.
FIGURE 6 in The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders
FIGURE 6. Newly designated lectotype (ANSP 1238) of Salamandra bislineata Green, 1818. Recorded in the ANSP catalogue as "P. cinereus" from "New Jersey" originating with "Dr. Bache, Green Collection." Fowler and Dunn (1917) considered ANSP 695–698 the syntypes, which we here designate as paralectotypes.
FIGURE 2. A in The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders
FIGURE 2. A specimen (ANSP 900) of Triturus fuscus Rafinesque, 1820 from "Dr. Bache, Green coll.," locality "near Phila.," here designated as the neotype of Salamandra nigra Green, 1818. This name is thus a senior subjective synonym of Triturus fuscus Rafinesque, 1820.
FIGURE 10. A in The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders
FIGURE 10. A poorly preserved specimen (USNM 3968; ventral view) listed as the "alleged holotype" of Salamandra jeffersoniana Green, 1827. Cope (1868) states that it was received from "Dr. F. Bache," while Yarrow (1882) records it as the "alc. type." from "Dr. J. Green," locality "Western Pennsylvania," which was reiterated by Cope (1889). Comparison with Peale's drawing of the holotype (Green 1827a, Pl. 2; Fig. 9) confirms its identity.
FIGURE 5. A in The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders
FIGURE 5. A poorly preserved specimen (ANSP 1229) that we are nevertheless comfortable in assigning to Plethodon cinereus (Green, 1818). Fowler (1907) and Fowler and Dunn (1917) had considered the series ANSP 1227–38 from "Dr. Bache, Green Collection," locality "New Jersey" as the syntypes of Salamandra cinerea Green, 1818, but Highton (1962) restricted this to 1232–34 & 37, designating 1232 as the lectotype, rendering the remaining specimens paralectotypes. Thus, this specimen no longer has any name-bearing function.
FIGURE 8. A in The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders
FIGURE 8. A pencil sketch we suggest is of Salamandra tigrina Green, 1825a by Titian Peale, dated 1819 (Mss.B.P31.15d.150b). This may represent the holotype, which was a living pet of Peale's, and of which Green 1825a notes Peale "has made a very accurate drawing." Courtesy of the American Philosophical Society.
FIGURE 1. A in The herpetological legacy of Jacob Green and the nomenclature of some North American lizards and salamanders
FIGURE 1. A watercolor painting of Salamandra longicauda Green, 1818 by Titian Peale, dated 1819 (Mss.B.P31.15d.149b). This may represent one of Green's original specimens. The margin notes in pencil (cropped from the original) read "4 ¾ inches long," "Pittsg [Pittsburg?] May 1st 1819," and "n° 4." Courtesy of the American Philosophical Society.
FIGURE 1. Helmutneris vadum n in Helmutneris vadum, a new species of Lumbrineridae (Annelida) from Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia
FIGURE 1. Helmutneris vadum n. sp. A. Holotype AM W.43952, general view; B. the same, anterior part, ventral view; C. the same, dorsal view; D. Paratype W.46032, maxillary apparatus, dorsal view; E. W.40849, maxilla II, dorsal view; F, the same, maxillae III and IV, dorsal view; G. W.46042, mandibles. Abbreviations: MI—maxilla I, MII—maxilla II, MIII—maxilla III, MIV—maxilla IV, al—attachment lamella, C—maxillary carriers.
FIGURE 2. Helmutneris vadum n in Helmutneris vadum, a new species of Lumbrineridae (Annelida) from Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia
FIGURE 2. Helmutneris vadum n. sp. Paratype W.46035. A. Anterior part, ventral view; B. Parapodium 1; C. Parapodia 14– 15; D. Parapodia 31–32; E. Simple multidentate hooded hook, parapodium 12; F. Simple multidentate hooded hook, parapodium 17. G. The same, enlarged. Abbreviations: psl—postchaetal lobe.
Data from: Long term effects of superoxide and DNA repair on lizard telomeres
Telomeres are the non-coding protein-nucleotide 'caps' at chromosome ends that contribute to chromosomal stability by protecting the coding parts of the linear DNA from shortening at cell division, and from erosion by reactive molecules. Recently, there has been some controversy between molecular and cell biologists, on the one hand, and evolutionary ecologists on the other, regarding whether reactive molecules erode telomeres during oxidative stress. Many studies of biochemistry and medicine have verified these relationships in cell culture, but other researchers have failed to find such effects in free-living vertebrates. Here we use a novel approach to measure free radicals (superoxide), mitochondrial 'content' (a combined measure of mitochondrial number and size in cells), telomere length and DNA damage at two primary time points during the mating season of an annual lizard species (Ctenophorus pictus). Superoxide levels early in the mating season vary widely and elevated levels predict shorter telomeres both at that time as well as several months later. These effects are likely driven by mitochondrial content, which significantly impacts late season superoxide (cells with more mitochondria have more superoxide), but superoxide effects on telomeres are counteracted by DNA repair as revealed by 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine assays. We conclude that reactive oxygen species and DNA repair are fundamental for both short- and long-term regulation of lizard telomere length with pronounced effects of early-season cellular stress detectable on telomere length near lizard death.
Data from: Microhabitat selection in the common lizard: implications of biotic interactions, age, sex, local processes, and model transferability among populations
Modeling species' habitat requirements are crucial to assess impacts of global change, for conservation efforts and to test mechanisms driving species presence. While the influence of abiotic factors has been widely examined, the importance of biotic factors and biotic interactions, and the potential implications of local processes are not well understood. Testing their importance requires additional knowledge and analyses at local habitat scale. Here, we recorded the locations of species presence at the microhabitat scale and measured abiotic and biotic parameters in three different common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) populations using a standardized sampling protocol. Thereafter, space use models and cross-evaluations among populations were run to infer local processes and estimate the importance of biotic parameters, biotic interactions, sex, and age. Biotic parameters explained more variation than abiotic parameters, and intraspecific interactions significantly predicted the spatial distribution. Significant differences among populations in the relationship between abiotic parameters and lizard distribution, and the greater model transferability within populations than between populations are in line with effects predicted by local adaptation and/or phenotypic plasticity. These results underline the importance of including biotic parameters and biotic interactions in space use models at the population level. There were significant differences in space use between sexes, and between adults and yearlings, the latter showing no association with the measured parameters. Consequently, predictive habitat models at the population level taking into account different sexes and age classes are required to understand a specie's ecological requirements and to allow for precise conservation strategies. Our study therefore stresses that future predictive habitat models at the population level and their transferability should take these parameters into account.
Data from: In the shadows: phylogenomics and coalescent species delimitation unveil cryptic diversity in a Cerrado endemic lizard (Squamata: Tropidurus)
The recognition of cryptic diversity within geographically widespread species is gradually becoming a trend in the highly speciose Neotropical biomes. The statistical methods to recognise such cryptic lineages are rapidly advancing, but have rarely been applied to genomic-scale datasets. Herein, we used phylogenomic data to investigate phylogenetic history and cryptic diversity within Tropidurus itambere, a lizard endemic to the Cerrado biodiversity hotspot. We applied a series of phylogenetic methods to reconstruct evolutionary relationships and a coalescent Bayesian species delimitation approach (BPP) to clarify species limits. The BPP results suggest that the widespread nominal taxon comprises a complex of 5 highly supported and geographically structured cryptic species. We highlight and discuss the different topological patterns recovered by concatenated and coalescent species tree methods for these closely related lineages. Finally, we suggest that the existence of cryptic lineages in the Cerrado is much more common than traditionally thought, highlighting the value of using NGS data and coalescent techniques to investigate patterns of species diversity.
Data from: Repeated evolution of exaggerated dewlaps and other throat morphology in lizards
The existence of elaborate ornamental structures in males is often assumed to reflect the outcome of female mate choice for showy males. However, female mate choice appears weak in many iguanian lizards, but males still exhibit an array of ornament-like structures around the throat. We performed a phylogenetic comparative study to assess whether these structures have originated in response to male-male competition or the need for improved signal efficiency in visually difficult environments. We found little evidence for the influence of male-male competition. Instead, forest species were more likely to exhibit colourful throat appendages than species living in open habitats, suggesting selection for signal efficiency. On at least three independent occasions, throat ornamentation has become further elaborated into a large, conspicuously coloured moving dewlap. Although the function of the dewlap is convergent, the underlying hyoid apparatus has evolved very differently, revealing the same adaptive outcome has been achieved through multiple evolutionary trajectories. More generally, our findings highlight that extravagant, ornament-like morphology can evolve in males without the direct influence of female mate choice, and that failure to consider alternative hypotheses for the evolution of these structures can obscure the true origins of signal diversity among closely related taxa.
Data from: Speciation, population structure, and demographic history of the Mojave Fringe-toed Lizard (Uma scoparia), a species of conservation concern
The North America deserts were impacted by both Neogene plate tectonics and Quaternary climatic fluctuations, yet it remains unclear how these events influenced speciation in this region. We tested published hypotheses regarding the timing and mode of speciation, population structure, and demographic history of the Mojave Fringe-toed Lizard (Uma scoparia), a sand dune specialist endemic to the Mojave Desert of California and Arizona. We sampled 109 individual lizards representing 22 insular dune localities, obtained DNA sequences for 14 nuclear loci, and found that U. scoparia has low genetic diversity relative to the U. notata species complex, comparable to that of chimpanzees and southern elephant seals. Analyses of genotypes using Bayesian clustering algorithms did not identify discrete populations within U. scoparia. Using Isolation-with-Migration (IM) models and a novel coalescent-based hypothesis testing approach, we estimated that U. scoparia diverged from U. notata in the Pleistocene epoch. The Likelihood Ratio Test and the Akaike Information Criterion consistently rejected nested speciation models that included parameters for migration and population growth of U. scoparia. We reject the Neogene vicariance hypothesis for the speciation of U. scoparia, and define this species as a single evolutionarily significant unit for conservation purposes.
Data from: Density-dependent habitat selection predicts fitness and abundance in a small lizard
Density-dependent habitat selection has been used to predict and explain patterns of abundance of species between habitats. Thermal quality, a density-independent component of habitat suitability, is often the most important factor for habitat selection in ectotherms which comprise the vast majority of animal species. Ectotherms may reach high densities such that individual fitness is reduced in a habitat due to increased competition for finite resources. Therefore, density and thermal quality may present conflicting information about which habitat will provide the highest fitness reward and ectotherm habitat selection may be density-independent. Using ornate tree lizards Urosaurus ornatus at 10 sites each straddling two adjacent habitats (wash and upland), we tested the hypothesis that habitat selection is density-dependent even when thermal quality differs between habitats. We first tested that fitness proxies decline with density in each habitat, indicating density-dependent effects on habitat suitability. We also confirmed that the two habitats vary in suitability (quantified by food abundance and thermal quality). Next, we tested the predictions that habitat selection depends on density with isodar analyses and that fitness proxies are equal in the two habitats within a site. We found that monthly survival rates decreased with density, and that the wash habitat had more prey and higher thermal quality than the upland habitat. Lizards preferred the habitat with more food and higher thermal quality, lizard densities in the two habitats were positively correlated, and fitness proxies of lizards did not differ between habitats. These patterns are consistent with density-dependent habitat selection, despite differences in thermal quality between habitats. We expect that density-dependent habitat selection is widespread in terrestrial ectotherms when densities are high and temperatures are close to their optimal performance range. In areas where thermal quality is low, however, we expect that depletable resources, such as food, become less limiting because assimilating resources is more difficult.
Data from: Experimental evidence of early costs of reproduction in conspecific viviparous and oviparous lizards
Reproduction entails costs, and disentangling the relative importance of each stage of the reproductive cycle may be important to assess the costs and benefits of different reproductive strategies. We studied the early costs of reproduction in oviparous and viviparous lizard females of the bimodal reproductive species Zootoca vivipara. Egg-retention time in oviparous females is approximately one third of the time in viviparous females. We compared the vitellogenesis and egg-retention stages which are common to both reproductive modes. Precisely, we monitored the thermoregulatory behaviour, the weight gain and the immunocompetence of the females. Moreover, we injected an antigen in half of the females (immune challenge) to study the trade-offs between reproductive mode and immune performance, and between different components of the immune system. Finally, we experimentally induced parturition in viviparous females at the time of egg-laying in oviparous females. Oviparous and viviparous females did not show strong differences in response to the immune challenge. However, viviparous females spent more time thermoregulating while partially hidden and gained more weight than oviparous females. The greater weight gain indicates that the initial period of egg-retention is less costly for viviparous than for oviparous females or that viviparous females are able to save and accumulate energy at this period. This energy may be used by viviparous females to cope with the subsequent costs of the last two thirds of the gestation. Such an ability to compensate the higher costs of a longer egg-retention period may account for the frequent evolution of viviparity in squamate reptiles.
Data from: Selection outweighs drift at a fine scale: lack of MHC differentiation within a family living lizard across geographically close but disconnected rocky outcrops
The highly polymorphic genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are involved in disease resistance, mate choice, and kin recognition. Therefore, they are widely used markers for investigating adaptive variation. Although selection is the key driver, gene flow and genetic drift also influence adaptive genetic variation, sometimes in opposing ways and with consequences for adaptive potential. To further understand the processes that generate MHC variation, it is helpful to compare variation at the MHC with that at neutral genetic loci. Differences in MHC and neutral genetic variation are useful for inferring the relative influence of selection, gene flow and drift on MHC variation. To date, such investigations have usually been undertaken at a broad spatial scale. Yet, evolutionary and ecological processes can occur at a fine spatial scale, particularly in small or fragmented populations. We investigated spatial patterns of MHC variation among three geographically close, naturally discrete, sampling sites of Egernia stokesii, an Australian lizard. The MHC of E. stokesii has recently been characterised and there is evidence for historical selection on the MHC. We found E. stokesii MHC weakly differentiated among sites compared to microsatellites, suggesting selection, acting similarly at each site, has outweighed any effects of low gene flow or of genetic drift on E. stokesii MHC variation. Our findings demonstrate the strength of selection in shaping patterns of MHC variation or consistency at a fine spatial scale.
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