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FIGURE 3. Gryllus bimaculatus. a in Billions and billions sold: Pet-feeder crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), commercial cricket farms, an epizootic densovirus, and government regulations make for a potential disaster

FIGURE 3. Gryllus bimaculatus. a. Adult male (left) and adult female (right) both from pet store, San Diego Co., California. Note shiny pronotums and prominence of "bimacula" areas (red arrow pointing to left macula) at base of tegmina, although typically less so in the female. b. Adult male, more unusual light colored phase with cream colored eyes, from pet store in France. DNA profiles of both these "populations" are shown in Fig. 6.

FIGURE 6. Fast distance based analysis tree for 16s ribosomal RNA gene. Note total genetic uniformity among 28 in Billions and billions sold: Pet-feeder crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), commercial cricket farms, an epizootic densovirus, and government regulations make for a potential disaster

FIGURE 6. Fast distance based analysis tree for 16s ribosomal RNA gene. Note total genetic uniformity among 28 individuals of G. locorojo from eight "localities" on three continents. See Appendix A for specimen source data.

FIGURE 4. Gryllus locorojo a in Billions and billions sold: Pet-feeder crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), commercial cricket farms, an epizootic densovirus, and government regulations make for a potential disaster

FIGURE 4. Gryllus locorojo a. Adult male from Ghann's Cricket Farm showing characteristic head stripes. Adult male genitalia consistent with Gryllus: b. lateral view (arrow points to middle lobe) and c. ventral view (arrow points to middle lobe). d. Right adult male tegmen.

FIGURE 1 in Billions and billions sold: Pet-feeder crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), commercial cricket farms, an epizootic densovirus, and government regulations make for a potential disaster

FIGURE 1. Gryllodes sigillatus (adult male left) and Acheta domesticus (adult male right). Both species are usually light brown/tan in color with a black bar between the eyes. Adults of both sexes of G. sigillatus always have short tegmina (top wings) covering about half of the abdomen. Adults of both sexes of A. domesticus have longer tegmina reaching near tip of abdomen and hind (bottom) wings (see arrows) that extend beyond tip of abdomen. In culture, some adults of the latter species shed their hind wings (Walker 1977). Such an occurrence can be confirmed by the absence of any hind wing or the presence of just a stump.

FIGURE 2. Gryllus assimilis. a in Billions and billions sold: Pet-feeder crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), commercial cricket farms, an epizootic densovirus, and government regulations make for a potential disaster

FIGURE 2. Gryllus assimilis. a. Adult male from Mexico, Quintana Roo, near Cobá, more typical dark phase. Note dull pronotum (arrow) due to covering of fine hairs. b. Adult male from Mexico, Quintana Roo, Cancun, rarer light color phase, showing dull pronotum and head with indications of stripes. Field collected adults of both sexes are always long winged. Such color variation in natural specimens confirms the importance of male calling song for positive identification.

FIGURE 5 in Billions and billions sold: Pet-feeder crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), commercial cricket farms, an epizootic densovirus, and government regulations make for a potential disaster

FIGURE 5. Oscillograms (a,b) and sonogram (b) of the calling song of G. locorojo. a (upper). Male from S(top) 11–124, Rainbow Meal Worms, R(ecording) 12–4 @ 23°C showing only pairs which are sometimes grouped. B (lower). Male from S12–15, Monkfield Nutrition, R12–19 at 24°C, showing a triplet, doublet, and singlet pulse chirps with a dominant frequency of 5.4 kHz (Interestingly, dominant frequency is 4.2 kHz in Shestakov & Vedenina 2012).

FIGURE 8 in Billions and billions sold: Pet-feeder crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae), commercial cricket farms, an epizootic densovirus, and government regulations make for a potential disaster

FIGURE 8. Joint Ghann's Cricket Farm – Top Hat Cricket Farm ad from May, 2012, issue of Reptiles, a trade magazine, promoting USDA authorized G. assimilis over illegal G. locorojo.

FiG. 3 in Early domestication and farming: what should we know or do for a better understanding?

FiG. 3. — Comparison of the different components of the Neolithic transition in Southwest Asia and North China and their chronological succession, and the schematic representation of the origins of domestic pigs, sheep, goats, cattle and horse in the two regions, according to Vila (1998), Huot (2004), Helmer et al. (2005), Peters et al. (2005), Flad et al. (2007), Elisseeff (2008) Boaretto et al. (2009),Outram et al. 2009, Bar-Yosef (2011), Cohen (2011), Cucchi et al. (2011), Zhao (2011), and Willcox & Stordeur (2012).

FiG. 2 in Early domestication and farming: what should we know or do for a better understanding?

FiG. 2. — Location and dates of the earliest ungulate domestication in Asia (animal outlines),of the Neolithic routes of transportation (arrows), of the early domesticates and of the different steps of the early spread of husbandry starting from the nucleus zones (concentric degraded green patches); according to Meadow (1981), Helmer et al. (2005), Larson et al. (2005, 2007), Peters et al. (2005), Flad et al. (2007), Cucchi et al. (2008, 2011), Yang et al. (2008), Hongo et al. (2009), Dobney & Jacques (2010), Linseele (2013), and Vigne & Debue (in press).

FiG. 4 in Early domestication and farming: what should we know or do for a better understanding?

FiG. 4. — The Cypriot Aetokremnos shelter, where evidence of 'predomestic' control of wild boars has been discovered: A, location (Map: MODIS/MODLAND/ Decloîtres); B, view of the excavations (courtesy Allan Simmons); C, schematic interpretation of the fillings of the shelter;D, abaxial (left) and axial third phalanges of small sized wild boar found in the upper layer. Scale bar: 5 cm.

FiG. 8 in Early domestication and farming: what should we know or do for a better understanding?

FiG. 8. — Medial view of a right upper third molar of a Late Neolithic sheep of Orkneys (Skara Brae; first half of the 3rd millennium cal BC). The enamel of the anterior lobe has been sequentially sampled by drilling, in order to analyze the variations of the oxygen and carbon stable isotopes ratios during the period of mineralisation of the tooth. Scale bar: 1 cm (Photo by M. Balasse).

Fig. 4 in Seasonal Occurrence (Phenology) of Coprophilous Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae and Hydrophilidae) from Cattle and Sheep Farms in Southeastern Michigan, USA

Fig. 4. Phenology of dung beetle species with a split temporal distribution pattern in spring/summer and late autumn. Symbols indicate the presence of a species in each sample. Sampling started 26 March 2012 (before the first A on the date of collection axis) and ended 16 May 2013 (after the last M on the same axis). Circles show the presence of a beetle species on the sheep farm on the respective collection date, while squares show the presence of a beetle species on the cattle farm on the respective collection date. Presence of a species at the sheep farm is indicated below the labeled presence of the species at the cattle farm.

Fig. 2 in Seasonal Occurrence (Phenology) of Coprophilous Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae and Hydrophilidae) from Cattle and Sheep Farms in Southeastern Michigan, USA

Fig. 2. Phenology of dung beetle species that occurred only in spring and early summer. Symbols indicate the presence of a species in each sample. Sampling started 26 March 2012 (before the first A on the date of collection axis) and ended 16 May 2013 (after the last M on the same axis). Circles show the presence of a beetle species on the sheep farm on the respective collection date, while squares show the presence of a beetle species on the cattle farm on the respective collection date. Presence of a species at the sheep farm is indicated below the labeled presence of the species at the cattle farm.

Fig. 3 in Seasonal Occurrence (Phenology) of Coprophilous Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae and Hydrophilidae) from Cattle and Sheep Farms in Southeastern Michigan, USA

Fig. 3. Phenology of dung beetle species that occurred from summer until late autumn. Symbols indicate the presence of a species in each sample. Sampling started 26 March 2012 (before the first A on the date of collection axis) and ended 16 May 2013 (after the last M on the same axis). Circles show the presence of a beetle species on the sheep farm on the respective collection date, while squares show the presence of a beetle species on the cattle farm on the respective collection date. Presence of a species at the sheep farm is indicated below the labeled presence of the species at the cattle farm.

Fig. 1 in Seasonal Occurrence (Phenology) of Coprophilous Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae and Hydrophilidae) from Cattle and Sheep Farms in Southeastern Michigan, USA

Fig. 1. Mean temperature (with maximum and minimum bars) and accumulated precipitation between sampling dates for Adrian, MI from March 2012 to June 2013 and number of beetles (N) sampled on those dates.

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Fig. 9 in The Last Piece of the Puzzle? Phylogenetic Position and Natural History of the Monotypic Fungus-Farming Ant Genus Paramycetophylax (Formicidae: Attini)

Fig. 9. Phylogeny of fungal cultivars and free-living fungi based on Bayesian analysis of the ITS 'fungal barcoding′ region conducted in MrBayes (Ronquist et al. 2012). Ant-cultivated fungi are divided into two clades, Clade 2 (red branches) and Clade 1 (blue branches); free-living fungi are represented by black branches. The cultivar of Paramycetophylax bruchi is represented with a blue font and a red star. Nodes with posterior probability of 1 are represented by a blue circle, whereas nodes with posterior probabilities between 0.90 and 0.99 are represented by an orange circle. Nodes without circles indicate posterior probabilities lower than 0.90. Green box indicates the clade of fungi cultivated by the yeast-growing ants in the genus Cyphomyrmex and the blue box indicates the clade of fungi cultivated by the leaf-cutting ants and Apterostigma megacephala.

Fig. 8 in The Last Piece of the Puzzle? Phylogenetic Position and Natural History of the Monotypic Fungus-Farming Ant Genus Paramycetophylax (Formicidae: Attini)

Fig. 8. Time-calibrated phylogeny of the tribe Attini inferred from an MCMCTREE analysis (Yang and Rannala 1997). Red star indicates the origin of fungusfarming ants. Blue dots indicate fossil calibrations (see text). Colored boxes indicate the five agricultural systems: (i) lower agriculture (yellow); (ii) coral-fungus (Pterulaceae) agriculture (red); (iii) yeast agriculture (green); (iv) higher agriculture (blue); and (v) leaf-cutter agriculture (orange).Taxa in red correspond to anthead images on right:Cyphomyrmex costatus (top),Paramycetophylax bruchi (middle), and C. rimosus (bottom). Light blue bars indicate 95% highest probability density (HPD). K-Pg Event = Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary; EECO = Early Eocence Climatic Optimum;TEE = Terminal Eocene Event; MMCO = Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum.

Fig. 6 in The Last Piece of the Puzzle? Phylogenetic Position and Natural History of the Monotypic Fungus-Farming Ant Genus Paramycetophylax (Formicidae: Attini)

Fig. 6. Fungus gardens. (A) Subterranean garden chamber at Reserva Biósfera Ñacuñan (RBÑ), Mendoza, Argentina; (B) fungus garden and ants in field nest boxes at Parque Nacional Sierra de las Quijadas, San Luis, Argentina; (C–D) fungus garden and ants in field nest boxes at RBÑ.

Fig. 7 in The Last Piece of the Puzzle? Phylogenetic Position and Natural History of the Monotypic Fungus-Farming Ant Genus Paramycetophylax (Formicidae: Attini)

Fig. 7. Phylogeny of the Myrmicinae based on a SWSC-EN partitioned maximum-likelihood analysis in IQTREE (Chernomor et al. 2016, Minh et al. 2020). Support values on branches indicate the SH-like approximation likelihood-ratio test (alrt) and ultrafast bootstrap (UFBoots) proportions, respectively. Red branches indicate the position of Paramycetophylax bruchi. Inset: Automontage image of the head of a P. bruchi worker.