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560 results for “Direct effects”
Data from: Indirect effects of parasitism: costs of infection to other individuals can be greater than direct costs borne by the host
Parasitic infection has a direct physiological cost to hosts but may also alter how hosts interact with other individuals in their environment. Such indirect effects may alter both host fitness and the fitness of other individuals in the host's social network, yet the relative impact of direct and indirect effects of infection are rarely quantified. During reproduction, a host's social environment includes family members who may be in conflict over resource allocation. In such situations, infection may alter how resources are allocated, thereby redistributing the costs of parasitism between individuals. Here, we experimentally reduce parasite burdens of parent and/or nestling European shags (Phalacrocorax aristotelis) infected with Contracaecum nematodes in a factorial design, then simultaneously measure the impact of an individual's infection on all family members. We found no direct effect of infection on parent or offspring traits but indirect effects were detected in all group members, with both immediate effects (mass change and survival) and longer-term effects (timing of parents' subsequent breeding). Our results show that parasite infection can have a major impact on individuals other than the host, suggesting that the effect of parasites on population processes may be greater than previously thought.
Maternal effects in zooplankton consumers are not only mediated by direct but also by indirect effects of phosphorus limitation
<p>Nutrient limitation of primary producers has repeatedly been shown to negatively affect consumers, directly through stoichiometric mismatch and indirectly via alterations in the producer's biochemical quality or palatability. In this study, we assessed whether direct and indirect impacts of phosphorus<i>-</i>limitation on a planktonic consumer are transferred to the next generation via maternal effects and whether these effects reflect an anticipatory adaptive strategy. For this, we subjected cultures of the algivorous monogonont rotifer <i>Brachionus calyciflorus</i> to three food quality treatments, i.e. P-limited (LP), P-replete (HP) and P-enriched LP algae (i.e. algae with an LP-growth history but with molar C:P ratios equal to those of HP-algae). After two generations, we subjected offspring of these cultures to each of the three food quality treatments and monitored life history traits. In addition, we tested starvation resistance. Our results showed very strong negative maternal effects of low P food on offspring performance. These negative effects prevailed irrespective of contemporary diets, suggesting transmissive and selfish maternal effects rather than anticipatory adaptive effects. The relative strength of direct and indirect maternal P-limitation effects varied among different traits. Adult body size was predominantly determined by direct effects of P-shortage in maternal as well as contemporary food (LP < LP+P and LP+P = HP). In contrast, whereas egg size was negatively affected by direct effects of P-limitation in the maternal diet, a contemporary diet of LP and LP+P algae resulted in larger eggs than HP algae. Animals born from such larger eggs showed no higher growth rates, but they were more resistant to starvation, likely as the result of higher maternal allocation of energy rich molecules to the eggs. The present study shows that maternal food conditions represent an important factor that should be taken into account in studies of stoichiometric mismatch between producers and consumers.</p>
Data from: Submerged macrophytes mitigate direct and indirect insecticide effects in freshwater communities
Understanding how ecological interactions mitigate the impacts of perturbations such as pesticides in biological communities is an important basic and applied question for ecologists. In aquatic ecosystems, new evidence from microcosm experiments suggests that submerged macrophytes can buffer cladocerans from pulse exposures to the widely used insecticide malathion, and that mitigation increases with macrophyte density. However, whether these results scale up to more complex aquatic communities where ecological interactions such as competition can alter toxicity is unknown. Further, macrophyte abilities to mitigate different insecticide exposure scenarios (i.e. single versus repeated pulses) have never been tested. To address these gaps, we performed a factorial mesocosm experiment examining the influence of four macrophyte treatments (0, 10, 50, or 100 Elodea Canadensis shoots planted per mesocosm) crossed with three malathion exposure scenarios (no insecticide, single pulse, repeated pulses) on aquatic communities containing zooplankton, phytoplankton, periphyton, two snail species, and larval amphibians. In the absence of macrophytes, single malathion pulses caused short-term declines in cladoceran abundance followed by their rapid recovery, which precluded any indirect effects (i.e. trophic cascades). However, repeated malathion pulses caused cladoceran extinctions, resulting in persistent phytoplankton blooms and reduced abundance of one snail species. In contrast, with macrophytes present, even at low density, malathion had no effect on any taxa. We also discovered novel effects of macrophytes on the benthic food web. In the two highest macrophyte treatments, we observed trends of reduced periphyton biomass, decreased abundance of one snail species, and decreased amphibian time to and mass at metamorphosis. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence of negative submerged macrophyte effects on amphibians, a taxa of global conservation concern. Our findings suggest that facilitating macrophytes could be an important strategy for buffering freshwater communities from insecticides, though consideration of their impacts on animal species is necessary.
Data from: Direct and indirect transgenerational effects alter plant-herbivore interactions
Theory suggests that environmental effects with transgenerational consequences, including rapid evolution and maternal effects, may affect the outcome of ecological interactions. However, indirect effects occur when interactions between two species are altered by the presence of a third species, and make the consequences of transgenerational effects difficult to predict. We manipulated the presence of insect herbivores and the competitor Medicago polymorpha in replicated Lotus wrangelianus populations. After one generation, we used seeds from the surviving Lotus to initiate a reciprocal transplant experiment to measure how transgenerational effects altered ecological interactions between Lotus, Medicago, and insect herbivores. Herbivore leaf damage and Lotus fecundity were dependent on both parental and offspring environmental conditions. The presence of insect herbivores or Medicago in the parental environment resulted in transgenerational changes in herbivore resistance, but these effects were non-additive, as a result of indirect effects in the parental environment. Indirect transgenerational effects interacted with more immediate ecological indirect effects on Lotus fecundity. These results suggest that explanations of ecological patterns require an understanding of transgenerational effects and that these effects may be difficult to predict in species-rich, natural communities where indirect effects are prevalent.
Disentangling direct and indirect effects of habitat fragmentation on wild plants' pollinator visits and seed production
<p>Habitat fragmentation threatens plant and pollinator communities, as well as their interactions. However, the effects of landscape fragmentation on the pollination of wild plant species are not well-understood yet, partly because in fragmented landscapes there are many correlated features (e.g. decreased patch size, increased isolation and patch complexity) whose influences are difficult to disentangle. Using a SEM approach, we assessed the direct and indirect effects of landscape fragmentation (patch size, isolation and complexity, percentage of surrounding forest) on the abundance, functional-group richness and evenness of pollinators of 24 habitat fragments within an agricultural landscape in Southern Norway. In addition, we studied how these variables affected visitation rates (visits/flower) and seed production (seed set, seed weight) in the four most abundant plant species in the area. Flower abundance was higher in larger and complex patches and decreased with the percentage of forest in the surroundings, while flower richness increased with patch complexity. We found a direct negative relationship between patch complexity and the overall number of pollinator visits that the habitat fragments received. Apart from this direct landscape effect, pollinator visits were mostly affected by the floral communities, with overall flower abundance and richness increasing both total number of pollinator visits and pollinator-group richness, and flower richness having an additional negative influence on pollinator-group evenness. Interestingly, we did not find any direct link between visitation rates and reproductive success for any of the study plant species. Instead, several landscape variables directly affected species seed production, although the effects of landscape on seed production were highly species-specific. Patch complexity, had a negative effect on seed production in two of the four focal species, while other components of the landscape had species-specific effects. Increasing fragmentation of agricultural landscapes affects pollination interactions at the community level and the reproduction of wild plants. However, understanding the effects of fragmentation on seed production requires going beyond estimating visitation rates, since landscape effects on plant reproduction are not always related to overall interaction frequencies.</p>
Direct and indirect effects of noise pollution alter biological communities in and near noise-exposed environments
<p>Noise pollution is pervasive across every ecosystem on Earth. Although decades of research have documented a variety of negative impacts of noise to organisms, key gaps remain, such as how noise affects different taxa within a biological community and how effects of noise propagate across space. We experimentally applied traffic noise pollution to multiple roadless areas and quantified the impacts of noise on birds, grasshoppers, and odonates. We show that acoustically-oriented birds have reduced species richness and abundance and different community compositions in experimentally noise-exposed areas relative to comparable quiet locations. We also found both acoustically-oriented grasshoppers and odonates without acoustic receptors to have reduced species richness and/or abundance in relatively quiet areas that abut noise-exposed areas. These results suggest that noise pollution not only affects acoustically-oriented animals, but that noise may reverberate through biological communities through indirect effects to those with no clear links to the acoustic realm, even in adjacent quiet environments.</p>
Data from: Direct and plant trait-mediated effects of the local environmental context on butterfly oviposition patterns
Variation in the intensity of plant-animal interactions over different spatial scales is widespread and might strongly influence fitness and trait selection in plants. Differences in traits among plant individuals have been shown to influence variation in interaction intensities within populations, while differences in environmental factors and community composition are shown to be important for variation over larger scales. However, little is still known about the relative importance of the local environmental context vs. plant traits for the outcome of interactions within plant populations. We investigated how oviposition by the seed-predator butterfly Phengaris alcon on its host plant Gentiana pneumonanthe was related to host plant traits and to local environmental variation, as well as how oviposition patterns translated into effects on host plant fruit set. We considered the local environmental context in terms of height of the surrounding vegetation and abundance of the butterfly's second host, Myrmica ants. The probability of oviposition was higher in plants that were surrounded by lower vegetation, and both the probability of oviposition and the number of eggs increased in early-flowering and tall plants with many flowers in the three study populations. Flowering phenology, shoot height and flower production were, in turn, related to higher surrounding vegetation. Myrmica abundance was correlated with vegetation height, but had no effect on oviposition patterns. Oviposition and subsequent seed predation by the caterpillars strongly reduced host plant fruit set. Our results show that plant-animal interactions are context-dependent not only because the context influences the abundance or the behavior of the animal interactor, but also because it influences the expression of plant traits that affect the outcome of the interaction. The results also demonstrate that heterogeneity in environmental conditions at a very local scale can be important for the outcomes of interactions.
Source code and model outputs for 'Increasing Aerosol Direct Effect Despite Declining Global Emissions'
<p>Source code, model outputs and python scripts used for the publication of Hermant, A., Huusko, L., & Mauritsen, T: Increasing Aerosol Direct Effect Despite Declining Global Emissions</p>
Warming and top predator loss drive direct and indirect effects on multiple trophic groups within and across ecosystems
<p>1. The interspecific interactions within and between adjacent ecosystems strongly depend on the changes in their abiotic and biotic components. However, little is known about how climate change and biodiversity loss in a specific ecosystem can impact the multiple trophic interactions of different biological groups within and across ecosystems.<br> 2. We used natural micro-ecosystems (tank-bromeliads) as a model system to investigate the main and interactive effects of aquatic warming and aquatic top predator loss (i.e., trophic downgrading) on trophic relationships in three integrated food web compartments: i) aquatic microorganisms, ii) aquatic macroorganisms, and iii) terrestrial predators (i.e., via cross ecosystem effects).<br> 3. The aquatic top predator loss substantially impacted the three food web compartments. In the aquatic macrofauna compartment, trophic downgrading increased the filter-feeder richness and abundance directly and indirectly via an increase of detritivore richness, likely through a facilitative interaction. For the microbiota compartment, aquatic top predator loss had a negative effect on algae richness, probably via decreasing the input of nutrients from predator biological activities. Furthermore, the more active terrestrial predators responded more to aquatic top predator loss, via an increase of some components of aquatic macrofauna, than more stationary terrestrial predators. The aquatic trophic downgrading indirectly altered the richness and abundance of cursorial terrestrial predators, but these effects had different direction according to the aquatic functional group, filter-feeder or other detritivores. The web-building predators were indirectly affected by aquatic trophic downgrading due to increased filter-feeder richness. Aquatic warming did not affect the aquatic micro- or macro-organisms but did positively affect the abundance of web-building terrestrial predators.<br> 4. These results allow us to raise a predictive framework of how different anthropogenic changes predicted for the next decades, such as aquatic warming and top predator loss, could differentially affect multiple biological groups through interactions within and across ecosystems.</p>
Data from: A generalist nematode destabilizes plant competition: no evidence for direct effects, but strong evidence for indirect effects on rhizobia abundance
<p><span>1. Difficulties quantifying pathogen load and mutualist abundance limit our ability to connect disease dynamics to host community ecology. For example, specific predictions about how differential pathogen load is hypothesized to drive host competitive outcomes are rarely tested. Additionally, although infection is known to affect mutualists, we rarely measure the magnitude of pathogen effects on mutualist abundance across host competitive contexts. <span>We </span>tested for both mechanisms <span>in </span>a plant-rhizobia-nematode system.</span></p> <p><span><span>2. We </span>paired the legume <i>Medicago lupulina </i>with intra- and interspecific plant <span>com</span>petitors, with and without a generalist nematode parasite <i>Meloidogyne </i>sp. <span>Relative </span>change in plant biomass was used to determine how nematode inoculation <span>affected </span>plant competitive outcomes. <span>We</span> counted nematode galls to test for direct effects of parasitism on plant competition, and rhizobia nodules to test for indirect effects <span>of </span>nematode presence on rhizobia abundance.</span></p> <p>3. Parasites were destabilizing despite similar nematode load across competition treatments. During inter- compared to intraspecific competition, nematode <span>inoculation </span>decreased nodulation on <i>M. lupulina</i>, increased nodulation on <i>Trifolium repens</i>, and had no effect on nodulation on <i>Chamaecrista fasciculata.</i></p> <p><span><span>4. We </span>found no support for hypothesized direct effects of nematode load on competitive outcomes, and strong but idiosyncratic indirect effects of nematode <span>inoculation </span>on rhizobia abundance.</span></p>
Direct and indirect effects of anthropogenic forcing on lake surface water temperature
<p>Here are the data from this paper (Direct and indirect effects of anthropogenic forcing on lake surface water temperature)</p>
Direct and legacy-mediated drought effects on plant performance are species-specific and depend on soil community composition
Droughts affect plant communities, but their impacts may be mediated by soil biota. Soil communities may ameliorate drought stress, and droughts may leave legacies of altered soil communities that may affect future plant growth. However, it is not yet understood which groups of soil biota in particular affect plant performance under drought, nor which groups contribute to drought-legacy effects on future plant growth. We hypothesized that increasing soil-community complexity ameliorates drought stress and that drought-legacy effects are species-specific and soil-community-dependent. To test these hypotheses, we performed a two-phase experiment with six grassland species. In the first phase, we examined plant performance under drought and ambient conditions, in soils inoculated with a sterilized inoculum, or increasingly complex soil communities created by wet-sieving through 20-, 40-, and 200-µm mesh sieves. In the second phase, we examined drought-legacy effects on conspecific plant performance. We separately analysed plant performance in both phases, and integrated data from both phases using structural equation models. Drought effects on first-phase root biomass depended on soil inoculum, and this interaction differed among plant species, while effects on shoot biomass differed among species, but did not depend on inoculum. Only one species experienced drought-stress-ameliorating effects of soil biota. Drought-legacy effects on plant performance were positive, but depended on soil inoculum in case of root biomass, and on soil inoculum and species identity in case of shoot biomass. Drought-legacy effects were often mediated by first-phase biomass. In some species this effect was independent of inoculum, suggesting an abiotic legacy effect. In others, low first-phase biomass corresponded with high second-phase performance in presence of the most complex soil community. We conclude that drought-legacy effects on plant performance were soil-community-dependent but positive, suggesting that plants establishing after drought may benefit from increased nutrient availability and more positive impacts of soil biota.
Measurement report: The importance of biomass burning in light extinction and direct radiative effect of urban aerosol during the COVID-19 lockdown in Xi'an, China
<p>To explore the impacts of anthropogenic emissions on aerosol optical properties and direct radiative effect (DRE), a series of real-time measurements was conducted in an urban area of China before and during the lockdown of Coronavirus Disease 2019. The generalized addictive model analysis shows that the light extinction coefficient (<em>b</em><sub>ext</sub>) decreased largely during the lockdown due to the sharp reductions in anthropogenic emissions. Organic aerosol was the largest contributor to <em>b</em><sub>ext</sub> based on the ridge regression analysis. A hybrid environmental receptor model combining with chemical and optical variables shows that <em>b</em><sub>ext</sub> from biomass burning increased in the lockdown due to the undiminished needs of residential cooking and heating in winter. Biomass burning contributed the largest positive effect to aerosol DRE in the atmosphere during the lockdown, highlighting the importance of controlling biomass burning for mitigating climate change in China in the future.</p>
Dataset for: Interactive effects of tree species composition and water availability on growth and direct and indirect defences in Quercus ilex
<p>Plant diversity has often been reported to decrease insect herbivory in plants. Of the numerous mechanisms that have been proposed to explain this phenomenon, how plant diversity influences plant defences via effects on growth has received little attention. In addition, plant diversity effects may be contingent on abiotic conditions (e.g., resource and water availability). Here, we used a long-term experiment to explore the interactive effects of tree species composition and water availability on growth, direct (i.e. phenolics) and indirect (i.e. Volatile Organic Compounds – VOCs) defences and leaf herbivory in <em>Quercus ilex</em>. We quantified herbivory by chewing insects, phenolic compounds and VOCs in <em>Q. ilex</em> trees growing in stands differing in tree species composition (<em>Q. ilex</em>, <em>Q. ilex</em> + <em>Betula Pendula</em>, <em>Q. ilex</em> + <em>Pinus pinaster</em> and <em>Q. ilex</em> + <em>B. pendula</em> + <em>P. pinaster</em>) and water availability (irrigated vs control). Both direct and indirect defences were affected by tree species composition, but such changes were not mediated by changes in tree stem diameter. <em>Q. ilex</em> trees growing in stands with <em>P. pinaster</em> had the lowest concentration of both direct and indirect defences. Importantly, the effects of tree species composition on VOCs were exacerbated on irrigated blocks. Despite variation in defences, tree species composition did not affect herbivory in <em>Q. ilex</em>. Accordingly, we did not find any association between defences and insect herbivory. Our results suggest that changes in the micro-environment rather than growth-defence associations may mediate tree diversity effects on defences. In addition, reduced defensive investment in more diverse stands could negatively impact tree resistance masking the beneficial effects of species diversity at reducing insect herbivory.</p>
Data from: Direct and indirect effects of cougar predation on bighorn sheep fitness
<div> <p>We sought to evaluate the direct and indirect fitness effects of intense cougar (<em>Puma concolor</em>) predation using 48 years of data on marked bighorn sheep (<em>Ovis canadensis</em>) in Ram Mountain, Alberta, Canada. We compared years of intense cougar predation with years with no or occasional cougar predation. We first quantified the effects of predation on neonatal, weaning, and overwinter lamb survival, three metrics potentially affected by direct and indirect effects. We then investigated the possible indirect effects of intense cougar predation on lamb production, female summer mass gain, and lamb mass at weaning. Indirect effects included a 14.2% decline in lamb production. Female summer mass gain decreased by 15.6 % and lamb mass at weaning declined by 8.0% in years of intense cougar predation. Here are the six datasets, joined with a README.md file for the data description, in addition to the six corresponding R scripts for replicating the results.</p> </div>
Replication package for: "The Short- and Long-Run Impacts of Free Education on Schooling: Direct Effects and Intra-household Spillovers"
<p>The replication package contains the following folders: (1) The "do" folder, which contains all ".do" and ".R" files used to reproduce all figures and tables in the paper and the appendix; (2) The "outputs" folder, which stores all figures and tables; and (3) The "add-ons" folder, which includes all necessary Stata or R add-on packages. Additionally, the replication package contains a README PDF file to illustrate the result replication procedure.</p>
Identification of Source Specific Androgenicity Drivers Using High-Throughput Effect-Directed Analysis
<p>Supplementary Material for the Master Thesis entitled: Identification of Source Specific Toxicity Drivers<br>Using High-Throughput Effect-Directed Analysis by Aset Muratuly. Supervised by Dr. Iker Alvarez-Mora and Dr. Melis Muz</p>
Data from: Direct and transgenerational effects of an experimental heat wave on early life stages in a freshwater snail
<p>Data are saved as tab delimited text files (adults_and_egg_clutches.txt, egg_size.txt, offspring_survival_and_size.txt). Data files have the following columns:</p> <p>adults_and_egg_clutches.txt:<br> mat_temp - maternal temperature treatment (15C, 25C)<br> mat_surv - survival of maternal snails (1 = yes, 0 = no)<br> mat_rep - reproduction of maternal snails (1 = yes, 0 = no)<br> eggs - the number of oviposited eggs<br> offspring_temp - offspring temperature treatment (15C, 25C)<br> hatchlings - the number of hatched offspring<br> first_hatching - the first day of hatching after the egg clutch was laid<br> median_hatching - the median hatching day after the egg clutch was laid<br> last_hatching - the last day of hatching after the egg clutch was laid</p> <p>egg_size.txt:<br> mat_temp - maternal temperature treatment (15C, 25C)<br> clutch - egg clutch the offspring originated from<br> size - two-dimensional area of the egg (mm2)</p> <p>offspring_survival_and_size.txt:<br> mat_temp - maternal temperature treatment (15C, 25C)<br> offspring_temp - offspring temperature treatment (15C, 25C)<br> clutch - egg clutch the offspring originated from<br> surv - survival until the end of the experiment (1 = yes, 0 = no)<br> size - shell length at the end of the experiment (mm)</p>
Effect of 24-week FIFA 11+ Referees program on quality of Change of Direction Maneuver in Elite Soccer Referees
<p>This dataset is derived from a research study that explored the effects of a 24-week FIFA 11+ Referees training program on the quality of change of direction (COD) maneuvers among elite soccer referees. The study sought to assess alterations in cutting movement assessment scores at three angles (45, 70, and 90 degrees) for both dominant and non-dominant legs. Data were gathered before and after the intervention period to gauge the effectiveness of the intervention.</p>
Data from: Direct and indirect genetic effects on reproductive investment in a grasshopper
A fundamental part of the quantitative genetic theory deals with the partitioning of the phenotypic variance into additive genetic and environmental components. During interaction with conspecifics, the interaction partner becomes a part of the environment from the perspective of the focal individual. If the interaction effects have a genetic basis, they are called indirect genetic effects (IGEs) and can evolve along with direct genetic effects. Sexual reproduction is a classic context where potential conflict between males and females can arise from trade-offs between current and future investments. We studied five female fecundity traits, egg length and number, egg pod length and number and latency to first egg pod, and estimated the direct and IGEs using a half-sib breeding design in the grasshopper Chorthippus biguttulus. We found that the male IGEs were an order of magnitude lower than the direct genetic effects and were not significantly different from zero. However, there was some indication that IGEs were larger shortly after mating, consistent with the idea that IGEs fade with time after interaction. Female direct heritabilities were moderate to low. Simulation shows that the variance component estimates can appear larger with less data, calling for care when interpreting variance components estimated with low power. Our results illustrate that the contribution of male IGEs is overall low on the phenotypic variance of female fecundity traits. Thus even in the relevant context of sexual conflict, the influence of male IGEs on the evolutionary trajectory of female reproductive traits is likely to be small.
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Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
ABODe is a University of Edinburgh DataShare dataset for behavior classification in group-housed mice using home-cage video, identities, bounding boxes, ground-plate positions, and annotator labels.
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