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FIGURE 7 in Craniofacial ontogeny in Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Coelurosauria)

FIGURE 7. Immature bone grain on the lateral surface of the antorbital fossa of the maxilla (A; reversed), jugal (B), surangular (C), and the dorsal surface of the nasal and frontal (D) of an early ontogeny Tyrannosaurus rex (CMNH 7541). Skull length is 572 mm.

86.144.1, M in Craniofacial ontogeny in Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Coelurosauria)

86.144.1, M; AMNH 5664, N; AMNH 5336, O). Craniofacial bones of Daspletosaurus torosus'. lacrimals in lateral view (CMN 8506, F; TMP 85.62.1, G; CMN 11594, H); jugal in lateral view (FMNH PR308, L); and postorbitals in lateral view (CMN 11594, P; FMNH PR308, Q). Arrows indicate features discussed in text. Bones have been reversed to face right when required. Scale bar equals 50 mm; J is not to scale.

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Figure 6 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 6. Neck muscle origins and insertions in crocodilians. A, muscle attachments on C1–C9 of Caiman crocodylus. B, muscle insertions on the occiput of Caiman crocodylus. m. trans. cap., m. transversospinalis capitis; m. epi.-cap. lat., m. epstropheo-capitis lateralis; m. epi.-cap. med., m. epstropheo-capitis medialis; m. sp.cap. post., m. spinocapitis posticus; m. trans. cerv., m. transversospinalis cervicis; m. long. cerv., m. longissimus cervicis (m. articulares/m. tendinoarticulares); m. long. cap., m. longus capitis; m. long. cap. sup., m. longissimus capitis superficialis; m. long. cap. prof., m. longissimus capitis profundus; m. il. cap., m. iliocostalis capitis; m. il. cerv., m. iliocostalis cervicis.

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FIGURE 15 in A review of Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Coelurosauria) from New Mexico

FIGURE 15. Examples of tyrannosaurid phalanges. See opposite page for full caption.

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APPENDIX 1 in Craniofacial ontogeny in Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Coelurosauria)

APPENDIX 1. (Continued)

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APPENDIX 1 in Craniofacial ontogeny in Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Coelurosauria)

APPENDIX 1. (Continued)

Fig. 12 in A new tyrannosaurine (Theropoda:Tyrannosauridae) from the Campanian Foremost Formation of Alberta, Canada, provides insight into the evolution and biogeography of tyrannosaurids

Fig. 12. Paleogeographic distribution of tyrannosaurids across western North America during the Campanian. Tyrannosaurid clades appear to be separated into northern and southern assemblages. Albertosaurinae and Daspletosaurini demonstrate finer scale geographic segregation, where the former is more common further north in southcentral Alberta and the latter in southernmost Alberta and northern Montana. Modified map used with permission from Colorado Plateau Geosystems Inc.

Fig. 10 in A new tyrannosaurine (Theropoda:Tyrannosauridae) from the Campanian Foremost Formation of Alberta, Canada, provides insight into the evolution and biogeography of tyrannosaurids

Fig. 10. Right dentary of Thanatotheristes holotype (TMP 2010.5.7). A) Specimen in lateral view. B) Specimen in dorsal view. Numbers correspond to dentary alveolus position. Comparison of dentary symphyseal region between C) Thanatotheristes and D) Daspletosaurus torosus (TMP 2001.36.1). Note the absence of bony projections on the symphyseal surface and a rugose knob ventral to Meckelian foramen in Thanatotheristes contrasting with Daspletosaurus. Abbreviations: apr, anteroposterior ridges; bp, bony projections; dc, dentary chin; mf, meckelian foramen; mg, meckelian groove; rk, rugose knob. Scale bar equals 5 cm.

Fig. 9 in A new tyrannosaurine (Theropoda:Tyrannosauridae) from the Campanian Foremost Formation of Alberta, Canada, provides insight into the evolution and biogeography of tyrannosaurids

Fig. 9. Articulated right quadrate and surangular of Thanatotheristes holotype in lateral view. Abbreviations: anc, angular contact surface; ls, lateral shelf; ngf, non-glenoid fossa; pp, pneumatic pocket; qu, quadrate; sf, surangular foramen. Scale bar equals 2 cm.

Fig. 4 in A new tyrannosaurine (Theropoda:Tyrannosauridae) from the Campanian Foremost Formation of Alberta, Canada, provides insight into the evolution and biogeography of tyrannosaurids

Fig. 4. Right maxilla of Thanatotheristes holotype (TMP 2010.5.7) in lateral view with A) known fragments overlain on hypothesized reconstruction and B) subcutaneous surface magnified. The subcutaneous surface is strongly ornamented and possesses autapomorphic dorsoventral ridges (arrows). Extent of antorbital fossa indicated by black dash line. Large healed bite mark is indicated by white dash line. Abbreviations: aofo, antorbital fossa; mf, maxillary fenestra; pmf, promaxillary fenestra; pnf, posterior-most neurovascular foramen; scs, subcutaneous surface; sppm, subnarial process of premaxilla. Scale bar equals 5 cm.

Fig. 2 in A new tyrannosaurine (Theropoda:Tyrannosauridae) from the Campanian Foremost Formation of Alberta, Canada, provides insight into the evolution and biogeography of tyrannosaurids

Fig. 2. Skull reconstruction of Thanatotheristes holotype TMP 2010.5.7. Known bones appear in white. Missing bone morphologies and proportions are based on the holotype of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506). Scale bar equals 10 cm.

Fig. 3 in A new tyrannosaurine (Theropoda:Tyrannosauridae) from the Campanian Foremost Formation of Alberta, Canada, provides insight into the evolution and biogeography of tyrannosaurids

Fig. 3. Locality of Thanatotheristes degrootorum holotype (TMP 2010.5.7). A) Geographic location of the locality. The specimen was found 0.5 km upstream from the confluence of the Bow and Oldman rivers. B) Photograph of locality looking NNE. Specimen was found scattered over a lateral extent of 10 m on the shore of the river. The nearby cliff is composed of coal beds and interbedded sandstones and mudstones of the Taber Coal Zone of the Foremost Formation. C) Stratigraphic section of the exposures near the fossil locality. Bracket indicates likely stratigraphic provenance of specimen. Dotted line marks the extent of the exposures at the type locality; the Herronton Sandstone is exposed farther downstream.

Fig. 1 in A new tyrannosaurine (Theropoda:Tyrannosauridae) from the Campanian Foremost Formation of Alberta, Canada, provides insight into the evolution and biogeography of tyrannosaurids

Fig. 1. Simplified cladograms contrasting the two major phylogenetic hypotheses for Tyrannosauridae. (A) Hypothesis of Carr et al. (2017). (B) Hypothesis of Loewen et al. (2013).

Figure 13. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 13. A, the posteriormost subdivision of m. longus colli ventralis of Leptoptilos crumeniferus, depitcted in ventrolateral view. The outlined bellies originate deep in the thoracic region, and insert on light-coloured tendons to the posterior cervical ribs. The inset shows the morphology without highlighting. B, C, anteroventral views of the anterior vertebrae of Asio flammeus, depicting origins (B) and insertions (C), in dark shading, of m. longus colli ventralis. In B arrows represent schematic action of multiple slips of m. l.c.v. converging on an anterior insertion. D, ventral view of insertions (light shading) of m. iliocostalis cervicis onto the cervical ribs of Caiman crocodylus, with arrows representing schematic ventroflexive action. E, cervical vertebrae and ribs of Caiman crocodylus in oblique ventral view, depicting origins (dark shading) of m. rectus capitis ventralis and m. longus capitis, and m. iliocostalis cervicis (lighter shading), from the ventral centra and ventral spinous processes.

Figure 10. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 10. A, several muscles of Pelicanus occidentalis, disseted in lateral view. Abbreviations are as in the main text. Several slips of m. rectus capitis dorsalis (m. r.c.d.) converge ventrally, towards tendinous insertions on the basioccipital tuberosities. M. complexus has an unusual lateral, tendinous insertion. B, posterolateral view of m. longissimus capitis superficialis (outlined in dark grey) of Alligator mississippiensis. The posterior origin and the insertion are tendinous. M. iliocostallis capitis (m. il. cap.) is depicted, and m. constrictor colli has not been dissected away. The neck is slightly dorsiflexed in this view

Figure 4 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 4. Comparison of major sites of muscle attachment on the necks of tyrannosaurids versus crocodilians and birds. A, cervical series of Caiman crocodylus (above; C1–C9) and Tyrannosaurus rex (below; C1–C10), depicting similarities of posterior transverse process morpohology. B, cervical series of Asio flamaeus (above) and Tyrannosaurus rex (below), depicting morphological similarities of epipophysis and the C2 neural spine. In all three groups the anterior transverse processes are smaller than their posterior counterparts (to show this clearly the C2 cerivical rib of T. rex is not pictured). Cervical rib morphology differs markedly among these archosaurs. The specimens are scaled to similar lengths from C1 to C9. The Tyrannosaurus rex is a composite reconstruction of C1 from Osborn (1905), BHI 3033 (C2) and AMNH 5027 (the remaining bones).

Figure 2. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 2. A, inference of muscle function for turning the head in extant animals. Axes represent levels of corroboration of muscle topological and kinematic morphology, physiology and observed behaviour. The volume subtended by these levels of certainty is the behavioural inference space for the muscle. The muscles m. transversospinalis capitis lateralis and m. complexus, homologous and present in crocodilians and birds, respectively, are depicted as examples with different levels of corroboration along the axes and more or less certain inference of function. Physiological activity is shown as confirmed by electromyography in birds, but only hypothesized in crocodilians. B, inferring the function of m. complexus for turning the head in tyrannosaurids. Axes represent levels of inference (Witmer, 1995) for morphology and physiology, and level of inference for kinematic action of the muscle based on its reconstructed morphology (see text for explanation). Because physiological muscle function during movements is corroborated in only one pole of the extant bracket, and the physiology does not leave osteological correlates, a Level II′ inference is the best possible for the extinct taxon .

Figure 1 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 1. Divisions of amniote neck and craniocervical musculature, superimposed on the cervical vertebrae of Caiman crocodylus. Different shades represent transversospinalis, longissimus, iliocostalis and longus/medial iliocostalis divisions

Figure 9. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 9. A, insertions of (dark grey) m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis onto anterior cervical epipophyses of Haliaeetus leucocephalus. B, schematic origin (light grey) of m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis, from cervicodorsal region of Struthio camelus. C, schematic origins (dark grey) of m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis from epipophyses (processes dorsales) of posterior cervicals in Struthio camelus. Slips from these origins coalasce with the main belly of the muscle, as demarcated by the light-shaded lines. The main belly of the muscle continues dorsally. D, schematic origin and insertions of m. longus colli dorsalis pars caudalis. This muscle subsystem originates from the cervicodorsal region and sends multiple bellies to insert on posterior cervical epipophyses. E, origins of m. longissimus cervicis/m interarticulares of Caiman crocodylus. The gradient-filled slips represent association of origins with the fascia surrounding the muscles. F, anteriormost insertions (dark grey) of m. longissimus cervicis/m. interarticulares, and m. transversospinalis cervicis, of Caiman crocodylus

Figure 14 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 14. Mm. intercristales and mm. cervicales accendentes of birds. A, mm. intercristales shaded dark on the posterior cervicals of Leptoptilos crumeniferus. Inset to left depicts mm. intercristales in context on more of the neck. Recoil of the elastic ligament dorsiflexed the neck in this dissection specimen. B, mm. ascendentes cervicales on the posterior neck of Aquila chrysaetos (light outline). Most of m. transversospinalis capitis has been removed. C, origins and insertions of mm. intercristales (dark shapes), and cervicales ascendentes (lighter shapes), on the posterior cervicals of Struthio camelus. Arrows represent lines of action pulling the insertion towards the origin. In mm. intercristales, origins are from the anterior part of the attachment overlain in blue, and insertions from the posterior part of this area on the next anterior vertebra. For mm. cervicales ascendentes, several slips from posterior vertebrae converge upon a common insertion.