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Fig. 6 in Reproductive behavior, development and eye regression in the cave armored catfish, Ancistrus cryptophthalmus Reis, 1987 (Siluriformes: Loricariidae), breed in laboratory

Fig. 6. Eye size (diameter, in mm) versus age (in days) in three selected specimens (from left to right) of Ancistrus cryptophthalmus from Passa Três Cave; right eye on the top, left eye on the bottom.

Fig. 6 in Diet and dental development of three species of Roeboides (Characiformes: Characidae)

Fig. 6. Dental development of Roeboides microlepis at different SL sizes: a = 4.0 cm; b = 6.5 cm; c = 11.5 cm; d = 14.5 cm; e = 18.0 cm.

Fig. 2 in Diet and dental development of three species of Roeboides (Characiformes: Characidae)

Fig. 2. Volumetric proportion of the food items in the diet of Roeboides species. (n=number of analyzed stomachs).

Fig. 3 in Diet and dental development of three species of Roeboides (Characiformes: Characidae)

Fig. 3. Volumetric proportion of food items in the diet of different size classes of Roeboides species.

Fig. 4 in Diet and dental development of three species of Roeboides (Characiformes: Characidae)

Fig. 4. Dental development of Roeboides paranensis at different SL sizes: a = 2.6 cm; b = 3.7 cm; c = 6.2 cm.

Fig. 5 in Diet and dental development of three species of Roeboides (Characiformes: Characidae)

Fig. 5. Dental development of Roeboides prognathus at different SL sizes: a = 3.7 cm; b = 7.0 cm; c = 11.0 cm.

Figure 15 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 15. Comparison of the changes between the larval and adult body plans during larval development. The horizontal axis represents developmental stages (Gosner, 1960). The curves plotted depict structural modifications, and the grey area represents metamorphic events that take place during the metamorphic climax (stages 42–46) for most anurans. The early occurrence of metamorphic events (predisplacement) is observed in the ceratophryine frogs, especially in Lepidobatrachus spp., that have precocious metamorphosis. Delayed metamorphic events take place in the development of Pseudis platensis, a species in which some morphological changes that imply the end of metamorphosis for most anurans have yet to finish.

Figure 13 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 13. Variation in structural changes in some external features. A, dorsal view of Lepidobatrachus llanensis at the end of metamorphosis. A small tail stub is present. B, lateral view of the same specimen in (A) showing the angle of the mouth far beyond the posterior margin of the eye. C, dorsal view of Chacophrys pierottii during metamorphosis. The tail has started to reduce. D, lateral view of the same specimen in (C). The disappearance of the caudal fin is advanced, and the angle of the mouth reaches the posterior margin of the eye. E and F, ventral and lateral views of a Pseudis platensis tadpole at the beginning of metamorphosis. The oral disc and keratinized buccal structures are still present, and the forelimbs have emerged, but the anal tube remains well developed. G and H, ventral and lateral views of a P. platensis tadpole during metamorphosis. Larval mouthparts have disappeared; tail regression has started with the reduction of the fins, whereas the disappearance of the anal tube is delayed. I, dorsal view of P. platensis at an advanced metamorphic stage. The tail is conserved and has reduced caudal fins. J, ventral view of the same specimen showing the absence of the anal tube, and features of the mouth that are similar to those present in most anurans at the end of metamorphosis. K, detail in lateral view of the position of the angle of the mouth posterior to the eye.

Figure 12 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 12. Hematoxylin–eosin cross sections (6-Mm thick) at the diaphyseal level of metatarsal IV in postmetamorphic specimens. Black arrowheads indicate lines of arrested growth (LAGs). A, Lepidobatrachus llanensis, five LAGs male [data for two adult males; 5 ± 1 (SVL 74.5 mm) and 6 ± 1 (SVL 74.1 mm)]. B, Lepidobatrachus laevis, six LAGs female [data for two adult females; 6 ± 1 (SVL 144 mm) and 7 ± 1 (SVL 111 mm)]. C, Chacophrys pierottii, four LAGs male [data for two adult males; 6 ± 1 (SVL 49.9 mm) and 4 ± 1 (SVL 45.2 mm)]. D, Ceratophrys cranwelli, 11 LAGs male [data for three adult males; 14 ± 1 (SVL 84.6 mm), 11 ± 1 (SVL 81 mm), and 13 ± 1 (SVL 74.3 mm)]. E, Pseudis platensis, two LAGs female [data for two adults (female and male); 2 ± 1 (SVL 46 mm) and 3 ± 1 (SVL 44.6 mm)]. F, Telmatobius atacamensis, juvenile specimen, two LAGs [data for an adult male; 5 ± 1 (SVL 45.4 mm) and for the juvenile 2 ± 1 (SVL 45 mm)]. Abbreviations: mc; marrow cavity. Scale bars: 0.05 mm.

Figure 11 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 11. Mean, maximum, and minimum values of snout–vent lengths (SVLs) in advanced tadpoles (stages 38–41), during metamorphosis (stages 42–46), and in adults. Values of SVL are given in mm. Light-grey areas approximately represent the extension of larval development (LD) in months, and dark-grey areas refer to postmetamorphic growth (PG) in lines of arrested growth (LAGs). Lepidobatrachus llanensis: SVL in tadpoles (N = 15, SVL = 36.7 ± 3.4 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 26, SVL = 36.3 ± 5.8 mm); SVL of adults (N = 16, SVL = 76.5 ± 7.5 mm). Larval development takes place over a period of 2 weeks. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 6 years. Lepidobatrachus laevis: SVL in tadpoles (N = 12, SVL = 46.6 ± 2.8 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 26, SVL = 49.9 ± 7.8 mm); SVL of adults (N = 13, SVL = 99.2 ± 22.1 mm). Larval development takes over a period of 2 weeks. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 7 years. Chacophrys pierottii: SVL in tadpoles (N = 10, SVL = 46.3 ± 3.9 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 28, SVL = 36.3 ± 2.6 mm); SVL of adults (N = 15, SVL = 47.8 ± 2.7 mm). Larval development takes place over a period of 2 weeks. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 6 years. Ceratophrys cranwelli: SVL in tadpoles (N = 8, SVL = 26.3 ± 3.8 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 18, SVL = 27.5 ± 4.4 mm); SVL of adults (N = 10, SVL = 91.9 ± 12.7 mm). Larval development takes place over a period of 3 weeks. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 14 years. Pseudis platensis: SVL in tadpoles (N = 9, SVL = 46.3 ± 3.6 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 8, SVL = 37.4 ± 2.7 mm); SVL of adults (N = 7, SVL = 45.3 ± 5.0 mm). Larval development takes place over a period of 6 months. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 3 years. Telmatobius atacamensis: SVL in tadpoles (N = 11, SVL = 32.9 ± 3.4 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 30, SVL = 31.0 ± 1.8 mm); SVL of adults (N = 2, SVL = 45.2 ± 1.0 mm). Larval development takes place over a period of 8 months. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 5 years.

Figure 14 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 14. Presence and absence of m. suspensoriohyoideus among selected anuran tadpoles, following the criteria proposed by Haas (2003) at larval stage 37. A, Pseudis platensis. The muscle is absent. B–F, the muscle is present. B, Telmatobius atacamensis. C, Lepidobatrachus laevis. D, Lepidobatrachus llanensis. E, Ceratophrys cranwelli. F, Chacophrys pierottii. The absence of m. suspensoriohyoideus was reported for Ceratophrys ornata, L. laevis (Ruibal & Thomas, 1988; Haas, 2003), and C. cranwelli (Vera Candioti, 2005), but Palavecino (1999) described it in C. ornata and C. cranwelli. Haas (2003) proposed that the absence of m. suspensoriohyoideus is a synapomorphy for the Ceratophrys and Lepidobatrachus clade, and Frost et al. (2006) extended the synapomorphy for Ceratophryini. Our data demonstrate the presence of the m. suspensoriohyoideous in tadpoles of the three genera of Ceratophryinae. Abbreviations: oh, m. orbitohyoideus; sh, m. suspensoriohyoideus. Scale bars: 1 mm.

Figure 9 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 9. Palmar and plantar views of the autopodia in anurans at the end of metamorphosis, where subarticular turbercles are already well defined. A, Bombina variegata (foot): subarticular tubercles are absent and metatarsal tubercles are poorly developed. B, Bombina variegata (hand): subarticular tubercles are absent. C, Odontophrynus americanus (foot): subarticular tubercles are evident, and the inner metatarsal is not yet keratinized. D, Odontophrynus americanus (hand): subarticular tubercles are strongly developed. E, Pseudis platensis (foot): tubercles are absent and the inner metatarsal tubercle is defined. F, Pseudis platensis (hand): small subarticular tubercles are evident. G, Telmatobius atacamensis (foot): small subarticular tubercles and the inner metatarsal tubercle are present. H, Telmatobius atacamensis (hand): subarticular tubercles are better defined than in the foot. I, Lepidobatrachus llanensis (foot): subarticular tubercles are absent. The well-developed inner metatarsal tubercle and toe tips are keratinized. J, Lepidobatrachus llanensis (hand): subarticular tubercles are absent. K, Lepidobatrachus laevis (foot): subarticular tubercles are absent, and the inner metatarsal tubercle presents incipient keratinization. L, Lepidobatrachus laevis (hand): subarticular tubercles are absent. M, Ceratophrys cranwellii (foot): small subarticular tubercles are defined, and the inner metatarsal tubercles are poorly keratinized. N, Ceratophrys cranwelli (hand): small subarticular tubercles are present. O, Chacophrys pierottii (foot): subarticular tubercles are not prominent. Inner metatarsal tubercle has keratinization. P, Chacophrys pierottii (hand): subarticular tubercles are well developed. The pattern of distribution of subarticular tubercles is considered as diagnostic in most species, and development of these structures takes place at larval stages 38–40 (Gosner, 1960). Subarticular tubercles in manus and pes are also absent or poorly developed in Xenopus, Hymenochirus, Pipa, Ascaphus, Leiopelma, Alytes, Discoglossus, Madecassophryne, Stumpffia, Rhinoderma, Brachycephalus, Truebella, and Ansonia (Guibé, 1978; Graybeal & Cannatella, 1995; Matsui, Nabhitabhata & Panha, 1998; Pombal & Gasparini, 2006, among others). Scale bar: 0.2 mm.

Figure 10 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 10. Total length (TL) versus snout–vent length (SVL) plotted for larval specimens of six species between stages 39 and 41. Ceratophrys cranwelli tadpoles (N = 8, TL = 61.8 ± 8.2 mm, SVL = 26.3 ± 3.8 mm) are the smallest. Pseudis platensis larvae (N = 9, TL = 129.5 ± 14.4 mm, SVL = 46.3 ± 3.6 mm) are the largest. Lepidobatrachus laevis (N = 12, TL = 98.3 ± 7.2 mm, SVL = 46.6 ± 2.8 mm) and Chacophrys pierottii (N = 10, TL = 106.5 ± 8.0 mm, SVL = 46.3 ± 3.9 mm) share with P. platensis similar values of SVL. Lepidobatrachus llanensis (N = 15, TL = 83.7 ± 7.5 mm, SVL = 36.7 ± 3.4 mm) and Telmatobius atacamensis (N = 11, TL = 84.6 ± 4.8 mm, SVL = 32.9 ± 3.4 mm) are similar in total length, but L. llanensis tadpoles have greater body sizes.

Figure 1 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 1. The hypothetic relationships among ten anuran taxa that resulted from the analyses of 102 morphological characters. A, the only tree that was obtained from the analysis of larval and adult characters. B, strict consensus of relationships obtained from the analysis of 61 larval characters. C, strict consensus of relationships obtained from the analysis of 41 adult characters.

Figure 4 in Comparative ossification sequence and skeletal development of the postcranium of palaeognathous birds (Aves: Palaeognathae)

Figure 4. Graph of stage (Hamburger & Hamilton, 1951) of first occurrence of ossification for fore- and hindlimb elements for chicken, turkey, emu and rhea embryos. The order in which the elements are presented is standardized against the chicken sequence. Stage 40.5 is the same as stage 40+ in the text, whereas stage 45 represents elements that are ossified in the adult but unossified in the oldest embryo examined. The digit number is in roman numerals; the phalanges are numbered proximally to distally in arabic numerals.

Figure 2 in Comparative ossification sequence and skeletal development of the postcranium of palaeognathous birds (Aves: Palaeognathae)

Figure 2. Lateral view of the hindlimb and pelvic girdle of palaeognath embryos. A–C, Dromaius novaehollandiae: A, stage 32 (RM 8052); B, stage 36 (day 25 of incubation, RM 8023); C, stage 40+ (day 36 of incubation, RM 8034). E–G, Struthio camelus: E, day 15 of incubation (YPM 112437); F, day 21 of incubation (YPM 112444); G, day 34 of incubation (YPM 112459). I, J, Eudromia elegans: I, day 10 of incubation (YPM 112520); J, day 15 of incubation (YPM 112525). D, H, Rhea americana: D, stage 34 (day 14 of incubation, RM 7217); H, stage 40+ (day 26 of incubation, RM 7223). Grey shaded regions represent cartilage; black regions represent ossified tissue. The density of stippling reflects the relative degree of ossification. Scale bar, 5 mm.

Figure 3 in Comparative ossification sequence and skeletal development of the postcranium of palaeognathous birds (Aves: Palaeognathae)

Figure 3. Comparable developmental stages of Meleagris gallopavo (A), Rhea americana (B) and Dromaius novaehollandiae (C). Each embryo is at stage 34 (Hamburger & Hamilton, 1951) and to the same scale. Arrows mark the proximal and distal extents of the developing wings. Scale bar, 1 cm.

Figure 9 in Position and development of oocytes in velvet worms shed light on the evolution of the ovary in Onychophora and Arthropoda

Figure 9. Development of the endogenous ovary in Epiperipatus biolleyi. Transmission electron micrographs. A, position of the ovarian anlage beneath the presumptive heart and attached to the pericardial floor (pe) in an embryo with a full number of somites. Cross-section of the dorsal body. B, cross-section of an ovarian tube. Note the distinct separation into a germinal epithelium (ge), which contains the primordial germ cells (pgc), and a sterile epithelium (se). C, detail of the sterile epithelium. D, detail of the germinal epithelium. Arrowheads indicate apical junctions. Abbreviations: bl, basal lamina; ec, ectoderm; ge, germinal ovarian epithelium; hc, haemocoel; hl, lumen of the presumptive heart; lu, lumen of the ovarian anlage; me, outer layer of mesodermal cells that will later form the ovarian musculature; nu, nucleus; pe, presumptive pericardial floor; pgc, primordial germ cells; se, sterile ovarian epithelium.

Figure 7 in Position and development of oocytes in velvet worms shed light on the evolution of the ovary in Onychophora and Arthropoda

Figure 7. Internal organization of the endogenous ovary in Epiperipatus biolleyi. Light micrograph (A) and transmission electron micrographs (B–F). A, cross-section of the ovary (dorsal is up). Note the central position of ovarian lumen (lu) surrounded by germinal epithelium (ge) and the lack of a sterile epithelium. B, maturating oocyte (oc) from the germinal epithelium lying within a spherical chamber (ch), which is formed by specific cells (ce) of the germinal epithelium. C, detail of epithelial cells and an oocyte. Arrowheads indicate apical junctions. D, detail of the basal portion of the germinal epithelium with surrounding connective tissue containing muscle cells (mc). E, lower magnification of connective tissue showing numerous tracheal tubes (arrows). F, peripheral region of connective tissue containing tracheal tubes (tr) and flattened cells with an electron-dense content (fc). Abbreviations: bl, basal lamina; ce, cells of germinal epithelium that form the oocyte chamber; ch, oocyte chamber; ct, connective tissue; fc, flattened cell; ge, germinal epithelium; hc, haemocoel; lu, ovarian lumen; mc, muscle cells; mv, microvilli; nl, nucleolus; nu, nucleus; oc, maturating oocytes; tr, tracheal tubes.

Figure 5 in Position and development of oocytes in velvet worms shed light on the evolution of the ovary in Onychophora and Arthropoda

Figure 5. Internal organization of the exogenous ovary in Opisthopatus roseus (A–C, E, F) and Peripatopsis balfouri (D). Transmission electron micrographs. A, detail of ovarian epithelia and lumen. Arrowheads indicate apical junctions connecting epithelial cells. B, mitotically dividing oogonium (og) from the germinal epithelium. C, maturating oocyte (oc) with associated cells (ce) of modified germinal epithelium. Arrows point to the basal lamina which is strongly folded. D, maturating oc in the process of breaking through the connective tissue and growing out into the haemocoel. E, detail of dorsal ovarian wall showing the sterile epithelium (se) and the connective tissue (ct), which contains the musculature (mc). F, higher magnification of connective tissue showing muscle cells and collagen fibres. Abbreviations: bl, basal lamina; ce, cells associated with an oocyte (sometimes referred to as 'follicle cells' in the literature); cg, collagen fibres; ct, connective tissue; ge, germinal epithelium; hc, haemocoel; he, haemocyte; lu, ovarian lumen; mc, muscle cell; mt, mitochondria; mv, microvilli; nl, nucleolus; nu, nucleus; oc, maturating oocyte; og, oogonium; se, sterile epithelium; st, growing stalk.