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5,510 results for “Foods”
Data from: Food supplementation fails to reveal a trade-off between incubation and self-maintenance in female house wrens
Incubating birds must allocate their time and energy between maintaining egg temperature and obtaining enough food to meet their own metabolic demands. We tested the hypothesis that female house wrens (Troglodytes aedon) face a trade-off between incubation and self-maintenance by providing females with supplemental food during incubation. We predicted that food supplementation would increase the amount of time females devoted to incubating their eggs, lower their baseline plasma corticosterone levels (a measure of chronic stress), and increase their body mass, haematocrit (a measure of anaemia), and reproductive success relative to control females. As predicted, food-supplemented females spent a greater proportion of time incubating their eggs than control females. Contrary to expectation, however, there was no evidence that food supplementation significantly influenced female baseline plasma corticosterone levels, body mass, haematocrit, or reproductive success. However, females with high levels of corticosterone at the beginning of incubation were more likely to abandon their nesting attempt after capture than females with low levels. Corticosterone significantly increased between the early incubation and early nestling stages of the breeding cycle in all females. These results suggest that although food supplementation results in a modest increase in incubation effort, it does not lead to significantly lower levels of chronic stress as reflected in lower baseline corticosterone levels. We conclude that female house wrens that begin the incubation period with low levels of plasma corticosterone can easily meet their own nutritional needs while incubating their eggs, and that any trade-off between incubation and self-feeding does not influence female reproductive success under the conditions at the time of our study.
Data from: Step-patterned survivorship curves: mortality and loss of equilibrium responses to high temperature and food restriction in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
<p>While survivorship curves typically exhibit smooth declines over time, step-patterned curves can occur with multiple stressors within a life stage. To explore this process, we examined the effects of heat (24 ºC) and food restriction on juvenile rainbow trout (<i>Oncorhynchus mykiss</i> Walbaum) in challenge experiments. We observed step-patterned survivorship curves determined by mortality and loss of equilibrium (LOE) endpoints. To examine the cause of heterogeneity in the stress responses from early to late mortality and LOE, we measured indices of energetic reserves. The step transition in the survivorship curves, the peak mortality rates, and start of when individuals reached a critical energetic threshold (14% dry mass; 4.0 kJ·g<sup>-1</sup> energy) all occurred at around days 10-15 of the challenge. The coherence in these temporal patterns suggest heterogeneity in the cohort stress responses, in which an early subgroup died from heat stress and a late subgroup died from starvation. Thus, their endpoint sensitivities resulted in step-patterned survivorship curves. We discuss the implications of the study for understanding effects of multiple stressors on population heterogeneity and note the possible significance of stress response selection under climate change in which heat stress and food limitations occur in concert.</p>
Data from: Evolutionary and food supply implications of ongoing maize domestication by Mexican campesinos
Maize evolution under domestication is a process that continues today. Case studies suggest that Mexican smallholder family farmers, known as campesinos, contribute importantly to this, but their significance has not been explicitly quantified and analyzed as a whole. Here we examine the evolutionary and food security implications of the scale and scope under which campesinos produce maize. We gathered official municipal-level data on maize production under rainfed conditions and identified campesino agriculture as occurring in municipalities with average yields of ≤ 3 t/ha. Environmental conditions vary widely in those municipalities and are associated with a great diversity of maize races, representing 85.3% of native maize samples collected in the country. We estimate that in those municipalities around 1.38 x 1011 genetically different individual plants are subjected to evolution under domestication each season. This implies that 5.24x108 mother plants contribute to the next generation with their standing genetic diversity and rare alleles. Such a large breeding population size also increases the total number of adaptive mutations that may appear and be selected for. We also estimate that campesino agriculture could potentially feed around 54.7 million people in Mexico. These analyses provide insights about the contributions of smallholder agriculture around the world.
Data from: Forest disturbance and seasonal food availability influence a conditional seed dispersal mutualism
The interaction between granivorous scatter-hoarding mammals and plants is a conditional mutualism: scatter-hoarders consume seeds (acting as predators), but the movement of seed by scatter-hoarders may contribute to dispersal (acting as mutualists). Understanding the ecological factors that shape this relationship is highly relevant in anthropogenically disturbed tropical forests where large-bodied frugivores are extirpated. In such forests, large-seeded trees that once depended on these frugivores for dispersal may now only have scatter-hoarders as prospective dispersers. We studied Carapa oreophila (Meliaceae) in an Afromontane forest, to test the hypotheses that the proportion of seeds immediately consumed or hoarded (dispersed) would vary over a disturbance gradient. Temporal replication also afforded exploration of how habitat effects might vary with food availability. Using a Bayesian framework, we demonstrate that seeds were more likely to be hoarded in less disturbed forest, irrespective of temporal variation in food abundance. In contrast, forest disturbance only appeared to increase seed predation in temporal replicates that coincided with sustained food availability. These results highlight the potential variability in the dynamics between plants and scatter-hoarders over fine temporal scales, elucidating possible ecological scenarios where scatter-hoarders might act as mutualists (contributing positively to plant recruitment). Our study also fills important knowledge gaps about the importance of scatter-hoarders as dispersers in tropical forests depleted of large-bodied frugivores, particularly in Africa where scatter-hoarding mutualisms have not been extensively studied.
Data from: Land use alters trophic redundancy and resource flow through stream food webs
1. The changes to physical and chemical ecosystem characteristics as a response to pervasive and intensifying land use have the potential to alter the consumer-resource interactions and to rewire the flow of energy through entire food webs. 2. We investigated these structural and functional properties of food webs in stream ecosystems distributed across woodland, agricultural and urban areas in the Zagreb region of Croatia. We compared resource availability and consumer diet composition using stable isotope mixing models and tested how the isotopic variance of basal resources, primary consumers, macroinvertebrate predators, and other food-web characteristics change with different land use types. 3. Combination of increased loading and altered composition of nutrients, lower water discharge and higher light availability at urban sites likely promoted the contribution of aquatic macrophytes to diets of primary consumers. Macroinvertebrate predators shifted their diet, relying more on active filterers at urban sites relative to woodland and agricultural sites. Urban food webs also had lower trophic redundancy (i.e. fewer species at each trophic level) and a more homogenised energy flow from lower to higher trophic levels. There was no effect of land use on isotopic variation of basal resources, primary consumers or macroinvertebrate predators, but all these trophic groups at urban and agricultural sites were 15N-enriched relative to their counterparts in woodland stream food webs. 4. The physical and chemical ecosystem characteristics associated with intensive land use altered the resource availability, trophic redundancy and the flow of energy to other trophic levels, with potentially negative consequences for community dynamics and ecosystem functioning. These empirical findings indicate that reducing nutrient pollution, agricultural runoffs and maintaining riparian vegetation can mitigate the impacts of land use on structure and function of stream ecosystems.
Data from: Territory size decreases minimally with increasing food abundance in stream salmonids: implications for population regulation
How the local density of territorial animals responds to changes in food abundance will depend on the flexibility of territory size. Quantitative estimates of territory size over a broad range of food abundance are relatively rare because of the difficulty of measuring food abundance in the wild. Stream salmonids are an ideal model system for investigating flexibility in territory size, because food abundance can be quantified in the field and manipulated in the laboratory. We conducted a meta-analysis to test whether territory size decreases with increasing food abundance, and a mixed model analysis to test among three competing predictions: with increasing food abundance, territory size will be (1) fixed – the slope of a regression of log territory size vs. log food abundance = 0; (2) flexible and decreasing, as if individuals are defending a fixed amount of food – a slope = -1; and (3) initially compressible, but with an asymptotic minimum size – a slope between 0 and -1. We collected data from 16 studies that manipulated or measured food abundance while monitoring changes in territory size of young-of-the-year salmonids; 10 were experimental laboratory studies, whereas six were observational field studies. Overall, territory size decreased significantly with increasing food abundance; the weighted average correlation coefficient was -0.31. However, the estimated slope of the relationship between log territory size and log food abundance was only -0.23, significantly different from 0, but also significantly shallower than -1. Our estimated slope suggests that attempts to increase the density of territorial salmonids by increasing food abundance and reducing territory size will be inefficient; a 20-fold increase in food abundance would be required to double population density. Our analysis may also have implications for other species with a territorial mosaic social system – i.e. contiguous territories. In these social systems, social inertia will dampen any effects of changes in food abundance on the local density of settlers, compared to non-territorial species or those with non-contiguous territories.
Data from: Exceptional body sizes but typical trophic structure in a Pleistocene food web
In this study, we focused on the exceptionally large mammals inhabiting the Americas during the Quaternary period and the paramount role of body size in species ecology. We evaluated two main features of Pleistocene food webs: the relationship between body size and (i) trophic position and (ii) vulnerability to predation. Despite the large range of species sizes, we found a hump-shaped relationship between trophic position and body size. We also found a negative trend in species vulnerability similar to that observed in modern faunas. The largest species lived near the boundary of energetic constraints, such that any shift in resource availability could drive these species to extinction. Our results reinforce several features of megafauna ecology: (i) the negative relationship between trophic position and body size implies that large-sized species were particularly vulnerable to changes in energetic support; (ii) living close to energetic imbalance could favour the incorporation of additional energy sources, for example, a transition from a herbivorous to a scavenging diet in the largest species (e.g. Megatherium) and (iii) the interactions and structure of Quaternary megafauna communities were shaped by similar forces to those shaping modern fauna communities.
Data from: Eating up the world's food web and the human trophic level
Trophic levels are critical for synthesizing species' diets, depicting energy pathways, understanding food web dynamics and ecosystem functioning, and monitoring ecosystem health. Specifically, trophic levels describe the position of species in a food web, from primary producers to apex predators (range, 1–5). Small differences in trophic level can reflect large differences in diet. Although trophic levels are among the most basic information collected for animals in ecosystems, a human trophic level (HTL) has never been defined. Here, we find a global HTL of 2.21, i.e., the trophic level of anchoveta. This value has increased with time, consistent with the global trend toward diets higher in meat. National HTLs ranging between 2.04 and 2.57 reflect a broad diversity of diet, although cluster analysis of countries with similar dietary trends reveals only five major groups. We find significant links between socio-economic and environmental indicators and global dietary trends. We demonstrate that the HTL is a synthetic index to monitor human diets and provides a baseline to compare diets between countries.
Data from: Invasive bryozoan alters interaction between a native grazer and its algal food
The epiphytic bryozoan Membranipora membranacea encrusts the surface of kelp blades, causing recurrent large-scale defoliation events in kelp beds off the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, Canada. The gastropod Lacuna vincta grazes kelp, creating perforations that weaken blade tissues and increase the fragmentation rate. We assess the interaction between M. membranacea and L. vincta by measuring the grazing rate of snails on bryozoan-encrusted and non-encrusted kelp (Saccharina latissima) in no-choice and choice experiments in the laboratory conducted in November and December 2010. There was no effect of diet on grazing rate in no-choice experiments. In choice experiments, however, L. vincta grazed significantly more non-encrusted than encrusted kelp (7.1 versus 1.1 mg snail−1 d−1), and grazing rate of non-encrusted kelp was almost twice that in the no-choice experiment (3.8 mg snail−1 d−1), indicating that snails may avoid colonies of M. membranacea on partially encrusted kelp blades. We found no effect of diet on growth, reproduction and survival of snails maintained for four weeks on encrusted or non-encrusted kelp. By concentrating grazing damage on non-encrusted areas of blades, L. vincta may act synergistically with M. membranacea to increase the likelihood of blade breakage and canopy loss. This indirect effect of the invasive bryozoan could augment its direct effect on the standing biomass of native kelp beds and detrital export to adjacent communities.
Data from: Food vibrations: Asian spice sets lips trembling
Szechuan pepper, a widely used ingredient in the cuisine of many Asian countries, is known for the tingling sensation it induces on the tongue and lips. While the molecular mechanism by which Szechuan pepper activates tactile afferent fibres has been clarified, the tingling sensation itself has been less studied, and it remains unclear which fibres are responsible. We investigated the somatosensory perception of tingling in humans to identify the characteristic temporal frequency and compare this to the established selectivity of tactile afferents. Szechuan pepper was applied to the lower lip of participants. Participants judged the frequency of the tingling sensation on the lips by comparing this with the frequencies of mechanical vibrations applied to their right index finger. The perceived frequency of the tingling was consistently at around 50 Hz, corresponding to the range of tactile RA1 afferent fibres. Furthermore, adaptation of the RA1 channel by prolonged mechanical vibration reliably reduced the tingling frequency induced by Szechuan pepper, confirming that the frequency-specific tactile channel is shared between Szechuan pepper and mechanical vibration. Combining information about molecular reactions at peripheral receptors with quantitative psychophysical measurement may provide a unique method for characterizing unusual experiences by decomposing them into identifiable minimal units of sensation.
Data from: Social foraging extends associative odor-food memory expression in an automated learning assay for Drosophila melanogaster
<p>Animals socially interact during foraging and share information about the quality and location of food sources. The mechanisms of social information transfer during foraging have been mostly studied at the behavioral level, and its underlying neural mechanisms are largely unknown. Fruit flies have become a model for studying the neural bases of social information transfer, because they provide a large genetic toolbox to monitor and manipulate neuronal activity, and they show a rich repertoire of social behaviors. Fruit flies aggregate, they use social information for choosing a suitable mating partner and oviposition site, and they show better aversive learning when in groups. However, the effects of social interactions on associative odor–food learning have not yet been investigated. Here, we present an automated learning and memory assay for walking flies that allows the study of the effect of group size on social interactions and on the formation and expression of associative odor–food memories. We found that both inter-fly attraction and the duration of odor–food memory expression increase with group size. This study opens up opportunities to investigate how social interactions during foraging are relayed in the neural circuitry of learning and memory expression.</p>
Data from: Food and specific macronutrient limitation in an assemblage of predatory beetles
Habitats vary in food resources with carnivores often being prey limited, but it is unclear whether habitats facilitate a nutritionally balanced diet. Two paradigms in nutritional ecology, ecological stoichiometry and nutritional geometry, predict that carnivores are limited mainly by protein or lipid, respectively. Using the carabid beetle Anchomenus dorsalis and 10 other predatory beetles from agricultural fields, we developed and tested two simple procedures for quantifying macronutrient-specific habitat conditions without requiring information about the natural prey. Both procedures assume that predators forage for nutrients rather than specific prey. Our results show that 10 of 11 species were food limited. Five species were lipid limited and one species was protein limited in the field. Co-existing predator species showed considerable segregation of fundamental macronutritional niches. A linear relationship between specific nutrient limitation and the target lipid:protein (L:P) intake ratio indicates that species with high L:P target are more protein limited while species with low L:P target are more lipid limited. The study illustrates how species within a natural assemblage vary in nutritional niche and in specific nutrient limitation.
Data from: The effects of food web structure on ecosystem function exceeds those of precipitation
Ecosystems are being stressed by climate change, but few studies have tested food web responses to changes in precipitation patterns and the consequences to ecosystem function. Fewer still have considered whether results from one geographic region can be applied to other regions, given the degree of community change over large biogeographic gradients. We assembled, in one field site, three types of macroinvertebrate communities within water-filled bromeliads. Two represented food webs containing both a fast filter feeder-microbial and slow detritivore energy channels found in Costa Rica and Puerto Rico, and one represented the structurally simpler food webs in French Guiana, which only contained the fast filter feeder-microbial channel. We manipulated the amount and distribution of rain entering bromeliads, and examined how food web structure mediated ecosystem responses to changes in the quantity and temporal distribution of precipitation. Food web structure affected the survival of functional groups in general, and ecosystem functions such as decomposition and the production of fine particulate organic matter. Ecosystem processes were more affected by decreased precipitation than were the abundance of microorganisms and metazoans. In our experiments, the sensitivity of the ecosystem to precipitation change was primarily revealed in the food web dominated by the single filter feeder-microbial channel because other top-down and bottom-up processes were weak or absent. Our results show stronger effects of food web structure than precipitation change per se on the functioning of bromeliad ecosystems. Consequently, we predict that ecosystem function in bromeliads throughout the Americas will be more sensitive to changes in the distribution of species, rather than to the direct effects caused by changes in precipitation.
Data from: Predation risk perception, food density and conspecific cues shape foraging decisions in a tropical lizard
When foraging, animals can maximize their fitness if they are able to tailor their foraging decisions to current environmental conditions. When making foraging decisions, individuals need to assess the benefits of foraging while accounting for the potential risks of being captured by a predator. However, whether and how different factors interact to shape these decisions is not yet well understood, especially in individual foragers. Here we present a standardized set of manipulative field experiments in the form of foraging assays in the tropical lizard Anolis cristatellus in Puerto Rico. We presented male lizards with foraging opportunities to test how the presence of conspecifics, predation-risk perception, the abundance of food, and interactions among these factors determines the outcome of foraging decisions. In Experiment 1, anoles foraged faster when food was scarce and other conspecifics were present near the feeding tray, while they took longer to feed when food was abundant and when no conspecifics were present. These results suggest that foraging decisions in anoles are the result of a complex process in which individuals assess predation risk by using information from conspecific individuals while taking into account food abundance. In Experiment 2, a simulated increase in predation risk (i.e., distance to the feeding tray) confirmed the relevance of risk perception by showing that the use of available perches is strongly correlated with the latency to feed. We found Puerto Rican crested anoles integrate instantaneous ecological information about food abundance, conspecific activity and predation risk, and adjust their foraging behavior accordingly.
Data from: Space partitioning in wild, non-territorial mountain gorillas: the impact of food and neighbours
In territorial species, the distribution of neighbours and food abundance play a crucial role in space use patterns but less is known about how and when neighbours use shared areas in non-territorial species. We investigated space partitioning in 10 groups of wild, non-territorial mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Using location data, we examined factors influencing daily movement decisions and calculated the per cent overlap of annual kernel home ranges and core areas among neighbours. We found that the probability that a group chose an area was positively influenced by both food availability and the previous use of that area by the group. Additionally, groups reduced their overall utilization of areas previously used by neighbouring groups. Lastly, groups used their core areas more exclusively than their home ranges. In sum, our results show that both foraging needs and avoidance of competition with neighbours determined the gorillas' daily movement decisions, which presumably lead to largely mutually exclusive core areas. Our research suggests that non-territorial species actively avoid neighbours to maintain core area exclusivity. Together, these findings contribute to our understanding of the costs and benefits of non-territoriality.
Data from: Eelgrass (Zostera marina) food web structure in different environmental settings
This study compares the structure of eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) meadows and associated food webs in two eelgrass habitats in Denmark, differing in exposure, connection to the open sea, nutrient enrichment and water transparency. Meadow structure strongly reflected the environmental conditions in each habitat. The eutrophicated, protected site had higher biomass of filamentous algae, lower eelgrass biomass and shoot density, longer and narrower leaves, and higher above to below ground biomass ratio compared to the less nutrient-enriched and more exposed site. The faunal community composition and food web structure also differed markedly between sites with the eutrophicated, enclosed site having higher biomass of consumers and less complex food web. These relationships resulted in a column shaped biomass distribution of the consumers at the eutrophicated site whereas the less nutrient-rich site showed a pyramidal biomass distribution of consumers coupled with a more diverse consumer community. The differences in meadow and food web structure of the two seagrass habitats, suggest how physical setting may shape ecosystem response and resilience to anthropogenic pressure. We encourage larger, replicated studies to further disentangle the effects of different environmental variables on seagrass food web structure.
Data from: Always chew your food: freshwater stingrays use mastication to process tough insect prey
Chewing, characterized by shearing jaw motions and high-crowned molar teeth, is considered an evolutionary innovation that spurred dietary diversification and evolutionary radiation of mammals. Complex prey-processing behaviours have been thought to be lacking in fishes and other vertebrates, despite the fact that many of these animals feed on tough prey, like insects or even grasses. We investigated prey capture and processing in the insect-feeding freshwater stingray Potamotrygon motoro using high-speed videography. We find that Potamotrygon motoro uses asymmetrical motion of the jaws, effectively chewing, to dismantle insect prey. However, CT scanning suggests that this species has simple teeth. These findings suggest that in contrast to mammalian chewing, asymmetrical jaw action is sufficient for mastication in other vertebrates. We also determined that prey capture in these rays occurs through rapid uplift of the pectoral fins, sucking prey beneath the ray's body, thereby dissociating the jaws from a prey capture role. We suggest that the decoupling of prey capture and processing facilitated the evolution of a highly kinetic feeding apparatus in batoid fishes, giving these animals an ability to consume a wide variety of prey, including molluscs, fishes, aquatic insect larvae and crustaceans. We propose Potamotrygon as a model system for understanding evolutionary convergence of prey processing and chewing in vertebrates.
Data from: Linking songbird nest predation to seedling density: sugar maple masting as a resource pulse in a forest food web
The ecological literature presents considerable evidence for top-down forcing on the maintenance of species diversity. Yet, in temperate forests, bottom-up forces often exert a strong influence on ecosystem functioning. Here, we report on the indirect influence of a pulsed resource, sugar maple (Acer saccharum) seed production, on nest survival in a migratory songbird. We hypothesized that seed production in year t would determine daily nest survival rate in year t + 1 through its effects on seed-eating rodents. We used the density of sugar maple seedlings (with cotyledons) in year t + 1 as a proxy for seed production in year t and predicted that it would be inversely related to songbird nest survival the same year. We estimated the density of sugar maple seedlings, eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus) activity, and daily nest survival rate in the ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla) over four successive years in a northern hardwood forest of New Brunswick, Canada. Seedling density varied by two orders of magnitude between years, whereas an index of chipmunk activity changed by an order of magnitude. Both variables were positively correlated and negatively correlated to daily nest survival rate. A logistic-exposure model including only seedling density received the greatest level of support (lowest AICc). Previous studies have reported the effect of sugar maple masting on seed-eating rodent populations, but the strong link we report between seedling density and songbird nest survival is novel. A nocturnal seed-eating nest predator, deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), was not considered in our models, which may explain why chipmunk was not the best predictor of daily nest survival rate. The trophic linkages we observed are remarkably strong for a temperate forest ecosystem and might become more prevalent in northeastern North America, at least on calcium-rich soils, with the loss of large-diameter beech trees as a result of beech bark disease.
Data from: Differential hippocampal gene expression is associated with climate-related natural variation in memory and the hippocampus in food-caching chickadees
There is significant and often heritable variation in cognition and its underlying neural mechanisms, yet specific genetic contributions to such variation are not well characterized. Black-capped chickadees present a good model to investigate the genetic basis of cognition because they exhibit tremendous climate-related variation in memory, hippocampal morphology and neurogenesis rates throughout the North American continent, and these cognitive traits appear to have a heritable basis. We examined the hippocampal transcriptome profiles of laboratory-reared chickadees from the two most divergent populations to test whether differential gene expression in the hippocampus is associated with population differences in spatial memory, hippocampal morphology and adult hippocampal neurogenesis rates. Using high-resolution mRNA sequencing coupled to a de novo transcriptome assembly, we generated 23 295 consensus sequences, which predicted 16 206 protein sequences with 13 982 showing high similarity to known protein sequences or conserved hypothetical proteins in other species. Of these, we identified differential expression in nearly 380 genes, with 47 genes specifically linked to neurogenesis, apoptosis, synaptic function, and learning and memory processes. Many of the other differentially expressed genes, however, may be associated with other functions. Our study presents the first avian hippocampal transcriptome, and it is the first study identifying differential gene expression associated with natural variation in cognition and the hippocampus. Our results provide additional support to the hypothesis that population differences in memory, hippocampal morphology and neurogenesis in chickadees have likely resulted from natural selection that appears to act on memory and its underlying neural mechanisms.
Data from: Effects of food restriction across stages of juvenile and early adult development on body weight, survival, and adult life history
Organisms have to allocate limited resources among multiple life-history traits, which can result in physiological trade-offs, and variation in environmental conditions experienced during ontogeny can influence reproduction later in life. Food restriction may lead to an adaptive reallocation of the limited resources among traits as a phenotypically plastic adjustment, or it can act as an overall constraint with detrimental effects throughout reproductive life. In this study, we investigated experimentally the effects of food restriction during different stages of the juvenile and early adult development on body weight, survival and reproductive success in females and males of the European earwig Forficula auricularia. Individuals either received limited or unlimited access to food across three different stages of development (fully crossed) allowing us to identify sensitive periods during development and to test both additive and interactive effects of food limitation across stages on development and reproduction. Food restriction during the early and late juvenile stage had additive negative effects on juvenile survival and adult body weight. With regard to reproductive success of females which produce up to two clutches in their lifetime, restriction specifically in the late juvenile stage led to smaller first and second clutch size, lower probability of second clutch production and reduced hatching success in the second clutch. Reproductive success of females was not significantly affected when their male mates experienced food restriction during their development. Our findings in general support the 'silver-spoon' hypothesis in that food restriction during juvenile development poses constraints on development and reproduction throughout life.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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Annotated Behaviour and Observability Dataset (ABODe)
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