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1,186 results for “defensiveness”
Data from: Plasticity of plant defense and its evolutionary implications in wild populations of Boechera stricta
Phenotypic plasticity is thought to impact evolutionary trajectories by shifting trait values in a direction that is either favored by natural selection ("adaptive plasticity") or disfavored ("nonadaptive" plasticity). However, it is unclear how commonly each of these types of plasticity occurs in natural populations. To answer this question, we measured glucosinolate defensive chemistry and reproductive fitness in over 1,500 individuals of the wild perennial mustard Boechera stricta, planted in four common gardens across central Idaho, USA. Glucosinolate profiles—including total glucosinolate concentration as well as the relative abundances and overall diversity of different compounds—were strongly plastic both among habitats and within habitats. Patterns of glucosinolate plasticity varied greatly among genotypes. Plasticity among sites was predicted to affect fitness in 27.1% of cases; more often than expected by chance, glucosinolate plasticity increased rather than decreased relative fitness. In contrast, we found no evidence for within-habitat selection on glucosinolate reaction norm slopes (i.e., plasticity along a continuous environmental gradient). Together, our results indicate that glucosinolate plasticity may improve the ability of B. stricta populations to persist after migration to new habitats.
Data from: Herbivores and plant defenses affect selection on plant reproductive traits more strongly than pollinators
Pollinators and herbivores can both affect the evolutionary diversification of plant reproductive traits. However, plant defenses frequently alter antagonistic and mutualistic interactions and therefore variation in plant defenses may alter patterns of herbivore- and pollinator-mediated selection on plant traits. We tested this hypothesis by conducting a common garden field experiment using 50 clonal genotypes of white clover (Trifolium repens) that varied in a Mendelian inherited chemical antiherbivore defense—the production of hydrogen cyanide (HCN). To evaluate whether plant defenses alter herbivore- and/or pollinator-mediated selection, we factorially crossed chemical defense (25 cyanogenic and 25 acyanogenic genotypes), herbivore damage (herbivore suppression) and pollination (hand-pollination). We found that herbivores weakened selection for increased inflorescence production, suggesting that large displays are costly in the presence of herbivores. In addition, herbivores weakened selection on flower size but only among acyanogenic plants, suggesting that plant defenses reduce the strength of herbivore-mediated selection. Pollinators did not independently affect selection on any trait, although pollinators weakened selection for later flowering among cyanogenic plants. Overall, cyanogenic plant defenses consistently increased the strength of positive directional selection on reproductive traits. Herbivores and pollinators both strengthened and weakened the strength of selection on reproductive traits, although herbivores imposed ~2.7× stronger selection than pollinators across all traits. Contrary to the view that pollinators are the most important agents of selection on reproductive traits, our data show that selection on reproductive traits is driven primarily by variation in herbivory and plant defenses in this system.
Warmer nights offer no respite for a defensive mutualism
1. Ecologically-relevant symbioses are widespread in terrestrial arthropods but based on recent findings these specialized interactions are likely to be especially vulnerable to climate warming. Importantly, empirical data and climate models indicate that warming is occurring asynchronously, with nighttime temperatures increasing faster than daytime temperatures. Daytime (DTW) and nighttime warming (NTW) may impact ectothermic animals and their interactions differently as DTW results in greater daily temperature variation and moves organisms nearer to their thermal limits, while NTW avoids thermal limits and may relieve constraints of cooler nighttime temperatures; a nuance that has largely been ignored in the literature. 2. In laboratory experiments, we investigated how the timing of warming influences a widespread defensive mutualism involving the pea aphid, <i>Acyrthosiphon pisum</i>, and its heritable symbiont, <i>Hamiltonella defensa</i>, which protects against an important natural enemy, the parasitic wasp <i>Aphidius ervi</i>. 3. Three aphid sublines were experimentally created from single aphid genotype susceptible to A. ervi: one line infected with a highly protective H. defensa strain (APSE-3), one infected with a moderately protective strain (APSE-8), and one without any facultative symbiont. We examined aphid fitness in the presence and absence of parasitoids and when exposed to an average 2.5°C increase occurring across three warming scenarios (nighttime vs. daytime vs. uniform) relative to no-warming controls. 4. An increase of 2.5°C, as predicted to occur by the IPCC before 2100, was sufficient to disable the aphid defensive mutualism regardless of the timing of warming; a surprising result given that the daily maxima for control and nighttime warming scenarios were identical. We also found that warming negatively impacted i) symbiont-mediated interactions between host and parasitoid more than symbiont-free ones, ii) species interactions (host-parasitoid) more than each participant independently, and iii) aphids more than parasitoids even though higher trophic levels are generally predicted to be more affected by warming. 5. Here we show that 2.5°C warming, regardless of timing, negatively impacted a common microbe-mediated defensive mutualism. While this was a lab-based study, results suggest that temperature increases predicted in the near-term may disrupt the many ecological symbioses present in terrestrial ecosystems. 30-Mar-2020
Data from: Multi-modal defenses in aphids offer redundant protection and increased costs likely impeding a protective mutualism
1.The pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, maintains extreme variation in resistance to its most common parasitoid wasp enemy, Aphidius ervi, which is sourced from two known mechanisms: protective bacterial symbionts, most commonly Hamiltonella defensa, or endogenously encoded defenses. We have recently found that individual aphids may employ each defense individually, occasionally both defenses together, or neither. 2.In field populations, Hamiltonella-infected aphids are found at low to moderate frequencies and while less is known about the frequency of resistant genotypes, they show up less often than susceptible genotypes in field collections. To better understand these patterns, we sought to compare the strengths and costs of both types of defense, individually and together, in order to elucidate the selective pressures that maintain multi-modal defense mechanisms or that may favor one over the other. 3.We experimentally infected five aphid genotypes (two lowly and three highly resistant), each with two symbiont strains, Hamiltonella-APSE8 (moderate protection) and Hamiltonella-APSE3 (high protection). This resulted in three sublines per genotype: uninfected, +APSE8, and +APSE3. Each of the fifteen total sublines was first subjected to a parasitism assay to determine its resistance phenotype and in a second experiment a subset were chosen to compare fitness (fecundity and survivorship) in presence and absence of parasitism. 4.In susceptible aphid genotypes, parasitized sublines infected with Hamiltonella generally showed increased protection with direct fitness benefits, but clear infection costs to fitness in the absence of parasitism. In resistant genotypes, Hamiltonella infection rarely conferred additional protection, often further reduced fecundity and survivorship when enemy challenged, and resulted in constitutive fitness costs in the absence of parasitism. We also identified strong aphid-genotype X symbiont-strain interactions, such that the best defensive strategy against parasitoids varied for each aphid genotype; one performed best with no protective symbionts, the others with particular strains of Hamiltonella. 5.This surprising variability in outcomes helps explain why Hamiltonella infection frequencies are often intermediate and do not strongly track parasitism frequencies in field populations. We also find that variation in endogenous traits, such as resistance, among host genotypes may offer redundancy and generally limit the invasion potential of mutualistic microbes in insects.
Data from: Context-dependent defences in turtle ants: resource defensibility and threat level induce dynamic shifts in soldier deployment
1. Induced defences involve the dynamic deployment of limited and specialized defensive resources across multiple locations, to maximize organismal defensive function and fitness. They have been studied intensively in plants and solitary animals, but the induced defences of complex animal societies are poorly understood by comparison, despite the coordinated defensive actions of these taxa. 2. Here, we ask whether the level of environmental danger induces shifts in the deployment of limited and morphologically specialized soldiers across multiple nests in colonies of the turtle ant Cephalotes rohweri. Specifically, we test whether less defensible nests induce greater soldier deployment, and whether elevated enemy threat induced further increases in deployment, or reduced deployment consistent with a risk-limiting strategy. 3. We used colony-collection data to provide natural ecological context to our experiments, a field experiment to address how nest-entrance defensibility and soldier number impact defensive performance, and laboratory experiments to test whether differences in nest defensibility and threat level induce dynamic shifts in soldier deployment to new nests. 4. Less defensible nests were lost rapidly in our field experiment, irrespective of soldier number, but soldier deployment significantly increased survivorship of more defensible nests. Concordantly, less defensible nests induced the deployment of more soldiers per nest under low threat in laboratory experiments. Nevertheless, high-threat conditions revealed a risk-limiting soldier deployment strategy: with more danger, the number of soldiers per nest was significantly reduced in less defensible nests, as was the overall number of new soldier-defended nests. Total deployment to new nests was also consistently lower under high threat, dropping from 40% to 30% across colonies. 5. Induced soldier-based defences in turtle ants are therefore context-dependent, and dynamically scaled back at multiple levels when the environment is more dangerous. This dynamic, risk-limiting strategy is in strong contrast to stable patterns of soldier production in ants, and to typical task-allocation dynamics in members of the worker caste. Moreover, these findings establish that the evolution of specialized defensive agents can be coupled with sophisticated and inducible deployment strategies in complex social taxa, as we see for organisms at other levels of biological complexity.
Data from: Chemical defense over decadal scales: ontogenetic allocation trajectories and consequences for fitness in a foundation tree species
1. Expression of herbivore defense traits can change dramatically during the course of plant development. Little is known, however, about the degree of genetic or sexual variation in these ontogenetic defense trajectories or whether the trajectories themselves are adaptive, especially in long‐lived species. 2. We used a 13‐year dataset of chemical defense traits, growth, and survivorship from a common garden of trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) genotypes to document long‐term defense trajectories and their relationship to tree fitness during juvenile and early mature stages. 3. Overall, concentrations of the two principal classes of aspen defense compounds (salicinoid phenolic glycosides [SPGs] and condensed tannins [CTs]) decreased to differing degrees in foliage of juvenile trees and then remained relatively constant in maturity. Initial values, juvenile rates of change, and average mature values all exhibited significant genetic variation for both SPGs and CTs. 4. Relationships between defense trajectory parameters and metrics of tree fitness (growth and survivorship) depended on compound type and tree sex. Females with higher‐allocation SPG trajectories (high initial juvenile concentrations, slow juvenile declines, high mature concentrations) grew more slowly relative to females with lower‐allocation trajectories. In males, higher‐allocation SPG trajectories had a lesser effect on growth but were associated with reduced mortality. Juvenile CT trajectories were not correlated with tree fitness, but average CT concentration in maturity was positively related to growth in females. 5. These results suggest that ontogenetic defense trajectories are adaptive and subject to natural selection. Genotypic variation and ontogeny shape tree defensive chemistry, both independently and interactively. These patterns of defense expression have the potential to structure trophic interactions and the genetic composition of forests in both space and time.
A non-vector herbivore indirectly increases the transmission of a vector-borne virus by reducing plant chemical defenses
<ol> <li><span><span>Vectors and viruses </span><span><span>exist</span></span><span> in communities consisting of many interacting species. Although the cascading effects of predators or parasitoids on disease spread via direct effects on vectors have been investigated, little is known about the effects of other free-living species in communities on the transmission of vector-borne viruses via </span><span><span>indirect (host-plant mediated) effects</span></span><span> on vectors.</span></span></li> <li><span><span>In the present study, we used a food web consisting of tomato plants (</span><i><span>Solanum lycopersicum</span></i><span>), two tomato herbivores (the vector whitefly,</span><i><span> Bemisia tabaci</span></i><span>, and the non-vector two-spotted spider mite, </span><i><span>Tetranychus urticae</span></i><span>), and a whitefly-vectored plant virus (</span><i><span>Tomato yellow leaf curl virus</span></i><span>, TYLCV) to study how </span><i><span>T. urticae</span></i><span> may affect TYLCV transmission by </span><i><span>B. tabaci</span></i><span> via </span><span><span>host-plant</span></span><span> </span><span><span>mediated effects</span></span><span><span> on </span><i><span>B. tabaci</span></i></span><span>.</span></span></li> <li><span><span>We found that </span><i><span>T. urticae</span></i><span> infestation promoted </span><i><span>B. tabaci</span></i><span> feeding and thereby increased TYLCV transmission to tomato plants. These increases were </span><span><span>associated with</span></span><span> </span><i><span>T. urticae</span></i><span>-induced reductions in two flavonoids (rutin and quercetin trisaccharide) of tomato plants. Elevation of rutin and quercetin trisaccharide levels in </span><i><span>T. urticae</span></i><span>-infested plants via exogenous stem applications reduced </span><i><span>B. tabaci</span></i><span> feeding and TYLCV transmission. Therefore, suppression of these flavonoids by </span><i><span>T. urticae</span></i><span> infestation was </span><span><span>the most likely explanation for the observed changes in </span></span><i><span><span>B. tabaci</span></span></i><span><span> feeding behavior and TYLCV transmission</span></span><span>.</span></span></li> <li> <span>Our results show that by reducing flavonoids in tomato plants, a non-vector herbivore can indirectly increase the transmission of a vector-borne plant virus. These findings indicate that species that are far removed from the direct vector–virus interactions can indirectly affect vector–borne virus transmission by altering the </span><span><span>chemical defenses</span></span><span> of the shared host plant.</span> </li> </ol>
Data from: Relaxation of putative plant defenses in a tropical agroecosystem
<p>Evidence of the effects of agriculture on natural systems is widespread, but potential evolutionary responses in non-target species are largely uncharacterized. To explore whether exposure to agrochemicals may influence selective pressures and phenotypic expression in non-agricultural plant populations, we characterized the expression of putative anti-herbivore defense phenotypes in three non-agricultural species found upstream and downstream of irrigated rice fields in Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica. We found that plants downstream of chemically intensive agriculture showed shifts toward reduced expression of putative anti-herbivore defenses relative to upstream counterparts. In two of three tested species, leaf extracts from downstream plants were more palatable to a generalist consumer, suggesting a possible reduction of chemical defenses. In one species with multiple modes of putative defenses, we observed parallel reductions of three metrics of putative biotic and physical defenses. These reductions were concurrent with reduced herbivore damage on downstream plants. Together, these results suggest that agriculture has the potential to alter intraspecific phenotypic expression, ecological interactions, and natural selection in non-target plant populations.</p>
"Bulls in defensive position", 5500 years ago
The engraving from the Bull grotto of Kamyana Mohyla in South-Eastern Ukraine. In pictures four bulls staying close to one-another in so-called "defensive position". Due to photogrammetric study and numerous references from Central Asia, this engraving is dated back to Eneolithic — Early Bronze Age of the region (approximately 5500 years ago). Some of the bulls have initially been covered with red ocher or superimposed with a number of cupmarks. The cave is currently unuavailable due to the safety reasons. Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
APPETITE FOR SELF-DESTRUCTION: SUICIDAL BITING AS A NEST DEFENSE STRATEGY IN TRIGONA STINGLESS BEES
<p>Data 1 is an excel spreadsheet containing data needed to analyse<br /> "attack duration", as this is measured at the level of the individual bee.</p> <p>Data 2 is an excel spreadsheet containing data needed to analyse<br /> "probability of attack", "latency" (time until attack) and "number of bees",<br /> as these variables are analysed at the level of each flag wave on a colony.</p> <p>Data3 is an excel spreadsheet containing data for the "suicide" bioassay.<br /> A 1 in the self.sacrifice column indicates a dead bee, a 0 indicates a surviving one.</p> <p> </p>
Data from: Anti-predator defenses are linked with high levels of genetic differentiation in frogs
<p>Predator-prey interactions have been suggested as drivers of diversity in different lineages, and the presence of anti-predator defences in some clades is linked to higher rates of diversification. Warning signals are some of the most widespread defenses in the animal world, and there is evidence of higher diversification rates in aposematic lineages. The mechanisms behind such species richness, however, are still unclear. Here, we test whether lineages that use aposematism as anti-predator defense exhibit higher levels of genetic differentiation between populations, leading to increased opportunities for divergence. We collated from the literature > 3,000 pairwise genetic differentiation values across more than 700 populations from over 60 amphibian species. We find evidence that, given the same geographic distance, populations of species of aposematic lineages exhibit greater genetic divergence relative to species that are not aposematic. Our results support a scenario where the use of warning signals could restrict gene flow, and suggest that anti-predator defences could impact divergence between populations and potentially have effects at a macro-evolutionary scale.</p>
Trophic cascade within and across ecosystems: the role of anti-predatory defenses, predator type, and detritus quality
<ol> <li>Species in one ecosystem can indirectly affect multiple biodiversity components and ecosystem functions of adjacent ecosystems. The magnitude of these cross-ecosystem effects depends on the attributes of the organisms involved in the interactions, including traits of the predator, prey and basal resource. However, it is unclear how predators with cross-ecosystem habitat interact with predators with single-ecosystem habitat to affect their shared ecosystem. Also, unknown is how such complex top-down effects may be mediated by the anti-predatory traits of prey and quality of the basal resource.</li> <li>We used the aquatic invertebrate food webs in tank bromeliads as a model system to investigate these questions. We manipulated the presence of a strictly aquatic predator (damselfly larvae) and a predator with both terrestrial and aquatic habitats (spider) and examined effects on survival of prey (detritivores grouped by anti-predator defense), detrital decomposition (of two plant species differing in litter quality), nitrogen flux and host plant growth. To evaluate the direct and indirect effects of each predator type on multiple detritivore groups and ultimately on multiple ecosystem processes, we used piecewise structural equation models. For each response variable, we isolated the contribution of different detritivore groups to overall effects by comparing alternate model formulations.</li> <li>Alone, damselfly larvae and spiders each directly decreased survival of detritivores and caused multiple indirect negative effects on detritus decomposition, nutrient cycling, and host plant growth. However, when predators co-occurred, the spider caused a negative non-consumptive effect on the damselfly larva, diminishing the net direct and indirect top-down effects on the aquatic detritivore community and ecosystem functioning. Both detritivore traits and detritus quality modulated the strength and mechanism of these trophic cascades. Predator interference was mediated by undefended or partially defended detritivores as detritivores with anti-predatory defenses evaded consumption by damselfly larvae but not spiders. Predators and detritivores affected ecosystem decomposition and nutrient cycling only in the presence of high-quality detritus, as the low-quality detritus was consumed more by microbes than invertebrates.</li> <li>The complex responses of this system to predators from both recipient and adjacent ecosystems highlight the critical role of maintaining biodiversity components across multiple ecosystems. </li> </ol>
Defensive spines are associated with large geographic range but not diversification in spiny ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Polyrhachis)
<p>Several prominent evolutionary theories propose mechanisms whereby the evolution of a defensive trait or suite of traits causes significant shifts in species diversification rate and niche evolution. We investigate the role of cuticular spines, a highly variable morphological defensive trait in the hyperdiverse ant genus <em>Polyrhachis</em>, on species diversification and geographic range size. Informed by key innovation theory and the escape-and-radiate hypothesis, we predicted that clades with longer spines would exhibit elevated rates of diversification and larger range sizes compared to clades with shorter spines. To address these predictions, we estimated phylogenetic relationships with a phylogenomic approach utilizing ultra-conserved elements (UCEs) and compiled morphological and biogeographic trait databases. In contrast to the first prediction, we found no association between diversification rate and any trait (spine length, body size, and range size). However, we recovered a positive correlation between spine length and geographic range size, suggesting that spines promote expanded geographic range. Notably, these results were consistent across analyses using different phylogenetic inference approaches and spine trait measurement schemes. This study provides a rare investigation of the role of a defensive trait on geographic range size, and ultimately supports the hypothesis that defensive spines are a factor in increased range size in <em>Polyrhachis</em> ants. Furthermore, the lack of support for an association between spines and diversification, which contrasts with previous work demonstrating a positive association between spines and diversification rate, is intriguing and warrants further study.</p>
Figure 5. A in Defensive behaviour of a moth (Crambidae: Eoophyla sp.) that mimics jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) in tropical India
Figure 5. A, Composite image showing four successive positions (1-4) occupied by a female Plexippus paykulli on a vertical wall, near a stationary Eoophyla that was displaying its hindwings. Initially (1-2) this spider fed on a captured moth, but about 2 minutes later (3-4) it approached the Eoophyla from above. B, Detail of inset from (a).
Figure 3. A in Defensive behaviour of a moth (Crambidae: Eoophyla sp.) that mimics jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) in tropical India
Figure 3. A spider' view of a Eoophyla with elevated hindwings, from the front (A), and from a more lateral position (B-C). BC, Note that, with more direct illumination (C), reflection in the "eyes" of the salticid image on the hindwing can be seen.
Figure 2 in Defensive behaviour of a moth (Crambidae: Eoophyla sp.) that mimics jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) in tropical India
Figure 2. Eoophyla before (A) and after (B) raising its hindwings to display the image of a salticid in two directions, on a vertical wall.
Natural noise affects conspecific signal detection and territorial defense behaviors in songbirds
<p>Recent research suggests that anthropogenic noise can substantially alter animal behavior. Although there are many sources of natural background noise, the relative influence of these sounds on behavior has received much less attention. Using landscape-scale playbacks of rushing rivers and crashing ocean surf, we investigated how habitat appropriate natural noise alters territorial defense behaviors in lazuli buntings (<i>Passerina amoena</i>) occupying riparian areas and spotted towhees (<i>Pipilo maculatus</i>) in riparian and coastal areas when exposed to simulated intruder song. We also incorporated naturally occurring cicada noise as an acoustic source influencing lazuli bunting behavior. Both songbird species possess songs that share substantial spectral overlap with low-frequency, water-generated noise, and lazuli bunting song shares an additional high-frequency overlap with cicada calls. Thus, there is potential for background acoustic conditions to mask conspecific signals. We found that detection and discrimination of conspecific playback occurred more slowly for both species as background sound level increased. Lazuli buntings also exhibited complex flight behavior in noise, suggesting they respond differently depending on the amplitude and type (with versus without cicada calls) of background noise. Our results suggest natural noise can impair territorial defense behaviors in songbirds, highlighting natural soundscapes as an under-appreciated axis of the environment.</p>
Model and data for: Economical defense of resources structures territorial space use in a cooperative carnivore
<p>Manuscript Abstract: Ecologists have long sought to understand space use and mechanisms underlying patterns observed in nature. We developed an optimality landscape and mechanistic territory model to understand mechanisms driving space use and compared model predictions to empirical reality. We demonstrate our approach using gray wolves (<i>Canis lupus</i>). In the model, simulated animals selected territories to economically acquire resources by selecting patches with greatest value, accounting for benefits, costs, and tradeoffs of defending and using space on the optimality landscape. Our approach successfully predicted and explained first- and second-order space use of wolves, including the population's distribution, territories of individual packs, and influences of prey density, competitor density, human-caused mortality risk, and seasonality. It accomplished this using simple behavioral rules and limited data to inform the optimality landscape. Results contribute evidence that economical territory selection is a mechanistic bridge between space use and animal distribution on the landscape. This approach and resulting gains in knowledge enable predicting effects of a wide range of environmental conditions, contributing to both basic ecological understanding of natural systems and conservation. We expect this approach will demonstrate applicability across diverse habitats and species, and that its foundation can help continue to advance understanding of spatial behavior.</p> <p>Model & Data Abstract: In support of the above manuscript, all model files and data to re-create the analyses for the manuscript are included on Dryad. The model can be run in NetLogo (installation file included), using the associated input files to build the Montana landscape for wolves. Expertise in NetLogo is strongly recommended for using this model. Output files are likewise included along with code to create each plot in the manuscript and SI. Software files for the model and code to create each plot in the manuscript are located at Zenodo: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5802243.</p>
Data from: Induced defense and its cost in two bryophyte species
<p><b>PREMISE:</b> Current knowledge about defense strategies in plants under herbivore pressure is predominantly based on vascular plants. Bryophytes are rarely consumed by herbivores since they have ample secondary metabolites. However, it is unknown whether bryophytes have induced defenses against herbivory, and whether there is a trade-off between growth and defense in bryophytes.</p> <p><b>METHODS:</b> We carried out an experiment with two peatland bryophytes, <i>Sphagnum</i> <i><span>magellanicum </span></i><span>Brid. and <i>S. fuscum</i><i> </i></span>(Schimp.) H. Klinggr. T<span>wo kinds of herbivory, clipping with scissors and grazing by mealworms (</span><i>Tenebrio molitor </i>L.) were<span> simulated. At the end of the experiment we measured </span>growth traits, carbon-based defense compounds (total phenolics and cellulose) and storage compounds (total non-structural carbohydrates) of these two <i>Sphagnum</i> species.</p> <p><b><span>RESULTS: </span></b><span>Grazing but not clipping </span>increased total phenolics and C:N ratio and reduced biomass production and height increment. A negative relationship between biomass production and total phenolics was found in <i>S. magellanicum </i>but not in<i> S. fuscum</i>, indicating a growth-defense trade-off which is species-specific. Grazing reduced the <span>starch </span>content of <i>S. </i><i><span>magellanicum</span></i><span> and the </span>sugar <span>of </span><i>S. fuscum</i>. Either clipping or grazing had no effect on chlorophyll fluorescence (including actual and maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II) except that a significant effect of clipping on actual photochemical efficiency in <i>S. fuscum</i> was observed.</p> <p><b><span>CONCLUSIONS: </span></b>Our results suggest that <i>Sphagnum</i> can have induced defense against herbivory, and that this defense can come at a cost of growth. These findings advance our knowledge about induced defense in bryophytes, the earliest land plants.</p>
Leaked U.S. Department of Defense DMED (Defense Medical Epidemiology Database)
<p>This is a database and accompanying report first appearing on a google drive link shared by Attorney Thomas Renz of Renz Law with the Epoch Times as well as embedded into Thomas Renz' website.<br> <br> According to DHA's Armed Forces Surveillance Division, the data in this database is incorrect for the years 2016-2020. (Watson, 2022)</p> <p>DMED is a web tool to query medical event data contained within the Defense Medical Surveillance System. The AFHSD claims that due to a serious error in their system, data between the years of 2016-2020 has been incredibly under-reported which has lead to the appearance of a significant increase of occurrences of medical diagnoses in 2021. (Watson 2022)<br> <br> <strong>References:</strong></p> <p>Renz, T. (2021, October 1). <em>Attorney Tom Renz discovers leaked DOD covid files</em>. Renz Law. Retrieved February 6, 2022, from https://renz-law.com/attorney-tom-renz-discovers-leaked-dod-covid-files/</p> <p>Watson, S. (2022, February 6). <em>Pentagon responds to DOD whistleblowers' claim of spiking disease rates in the military after Covid Vaccine Mandate</em>. InfoWars. Retrieved February 6, 2022, from https://www.infowars.com/posts/pentagon-responds-to-dod-whistleblowers-claim-of-spiking-disease-rates-in-the-military-after-covid-vaccine-mandate/</p> <p> </p>
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