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Figure 6 in Morphological perspective on the classification and evolution of Recent Pterioidea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

Figure 6. The supramyal septum. Diagrammatic anatomy in posterolateral view. Abbreviations: au, auricles; am, adductor muscle; in, intestine; mi, mantle isthmus; ml, mantle lobes; ss, supramyal septum; v, ventricle; vm, visceral mass.

Figure 5 in Morphological perspective on the classification and evolution of Recent Pterioidea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

Figure 5. The phylogeny of the Pterioidea. Stratigraphic ranges are represented by solid vertical lines and relationships indicated by horizontal dotted lines. The inset shows an alternative phylogeny for the Bakevelliidae, Pteria, and Isognomon lineages. See text for details and Table 1 for sources of stratigraphic ranges.

Figure 13 in Morphological perspective on the classification and evolution of Recent Pterioidea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

Figure 13. Anatomy of ctenidia in the Pterioidea. Transverse histological section (7 µm, Alcian Blue/Periodic Acid/Schiff's trichrome stain). Homorhabdic ctenidia: A, Isognomon alatus (AMNH 298023, 43.41 mm); B, Malleus (Malvufundus) candeanus (AMNH 299406, 33.4 mm height); heterorhabdic ctenidia: C, Pteria sterna (AMNH 311731, 84.0 mm). Abbreviations: ct, ctenidium; d, demibranch; ilj, interlamellar junction; l, gill lamellae; ogf, ordinary gill filaments; pgf, principal gill filaments; pl, plica. Scale bar = 0.1 mm.

Figure 10 in Morphological perspective on the classification and evolution of Recent Pterioidea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

Figure 10. Association of ascending lamellae of inner demibranchs. Frontal histological section of ctenidia (7 µm, Alcian Blue/Periodic Acid/Schiff's trichrome stain), Pinctada longisquamosa (AMNH 298904, 16.0 mm). Abbreviations: cj, extent of cilial junction; ld, upper edge of ascending lamella of left demibranch; rd, upper edge of ascending lamella of right demibranch; tf, area of tissue fusion. Scale bar = 0.01 mm.

Figure 9 in Morphological perspective on the classification and evolution of Recent Pterioidea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

Figure 9. Serial tissue fusion of filaments at ventralmost edge of demibranch margins. Transverse histological section of ctenidia (7 µm, Alcian Blue/Periodic Acid/Schiff's trichrome stain). A, extensive interfilamentar serial fusion of gill filaments, Malleus (Malvufundus) candeanus (AMNH 299406, 33.4 mm height); B, interfilamental serial fusion limited to a transient narrow bridge, Isognomon alatus (AMNH 298023, 43.41 mm). Abbreviations: ogf, ordinary gill filaments; tf, tissue fusion. Scale bar = 0.1 mm.

Figure 3 in Morphological perspective on the classification and evolution of Recent Pterioidea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

Figure 3. Previous ideas on the phylogeny of the Pterioidea. A, the phylogeny of the 'Aviculidae and their allies' by Jackson (1890: 391) after his genealogical table. Only the relevant part of the tree is shown. For clarity, outdated generic names are replaced with currently accepted names and the genera of Pinnoidea, Pseudomonotidae, Inoceramidae, and Ostreoidea are collapsed without altering the original topology. The Recent pterioidean taxa, the main subject of the present work, are highlighted in bold. The non-pterioidean taxa having their origin in Jackson's Pteria have been removed in subsequent revisions, as indicated in Table 1. B, proposed sister groups of the Pterioidea (see text for details).

Figure 11 in Morphological perspective on the classification and evolution of Recent Pterioidea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

Figure 11. Ctenidia–mantle junction. Frontal histological section (7 µm, Alcian Blue/Periodic Acid/Schiff's trichrome stain). Pinctada longisquamosa (AMNH 298904, 16.0 mm). Abbreviations: cj, cilial junction; ct, ctenidium (upper edge of ascending lamella of outer demibranch); m, mantle; ogf, ordinary gill filaments. Scale bar = 0.05 mm.

Figure 1 in Morphological perspective on the classification and evolution of Recent Pterioidea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)

Figure 1. Diversity of shell morphology in the Pterioidea. Major features of the shell, showing the exterior of the right valve and the interior of the left valve [frontal view is shown in (G)]. The shells are arranged with the hinge axis orientated horizontally and anterior to the right. A, Isognomon alatus (AMNH 100419, 46.9 mm); B, Pinctada mazatlanica (AMNH 311788, 58.6 mm); C, Crenatula modiolaris (AMNH 27950, 49.0 mm); D, Pteria sterna (AMNH 311789, 58.0 mm); E, Electroma alacorvi (USNM 675754, 48.1 mm); F, Pulvinites exempla (AMS C.129659, 62.6 mm); G, Malleus anatinus (MNHN Expédition Montrouzier September 1993, Stn 1261, 44.38 mm height); H, Malleus (Malvufundus) candeanus (MCZ 340681, 69.9 mm height); I, Vulsella vulsella (AMNH 27884, 84.2 mm). For clarity, specific structures are labelled only on a single image where best observed. Abbreviations: aa, anterior auricle; ams, posterior adductor muscle scar; bn, byssal notch; br, byssal ridge; ccs, commarginal calcitic scales; cl, calcitic lamellae; cps, commarginal periostracal scales; fo, foramen; hl, hinge line; lg, ligament; mlg, multivincular ligament; nb, border of nacreous layer; pa, posterior auricle; pmg, prismatic margin; pms, pallial muscle scar; pr, pallial ridge; prms, posterior (pedo-byssal) retractor muscle scar; rs, radial stripes; u, umbo; um, undulating shell margins; vr, visceral rim.

Fig. 5 in Morphology and distribution of the cave knifefish Eigenmannia vicentespelaea Triques, 1996 (Gymnotiformes: Sternopygidae) from Central Brazil, with an expanded diagnosis and comments on subterranean evolution

Fig. 5. Preserved specimen of Eigenmannia vicentespelaea with no visible eyes and pale aspect (LEA: 67.6 mm). a. Entire individual. Scale bar, 10 mm; b. Detail of head with no visible eyes. Scale bar, 5 mm. Photos: M. E. Bichuette.

Fig. 3 in Morphology and distribution of the cave knifefish Eigenmannia vicentespelaea Triques, 1996 (Gymnotiformes: Sternopygidae) from Central Brazil, with an expanded diagnosis and comments on subterranean evolution

Fig. 3. Ocular diameter:head length proportions, standard deviations and confidence intervals for Eigenmannia vicentespelaea (n = 25) and Eigenmannia sp. (n = 15) from São Domingos karst area, Central Brazil. *outliers; 1, E. vicentespelaea; 2, Eigenmannia sp. collected in epigean river; 3, Eigenmannia sp. collected in subterranean stream reaches; horizontal bars, medians.

Fig. 2 in Morphology and distribution of the cave knifefish Eigenmannia vicentespelaea Triques, 1996 (Gymnotiformes: Sternopygidae) from Central Brazil, with an expanded diagnosis and comments on subterranean evolution

Fig. 2. Length (LEA) medians (horizontal bars), standard deviations and confidence intervals for Eigenmannia vicentespelaea (n = 25) and Eigenmannia sp. (n = 15) from São Domingos karst area, Central Brazil. *outliers; 1, E. vicentespelaea; 2, Eigenmannia sp. collected in epigean river; 3, Eigenmannia sp. collected in subterranean stream reaches.

Fig. 1 in Morphology and distribution of the cave knifefish Eigenmannia vicentespelaea Triques, 1996 (Gymnotiformes: Sternopygidae) from Central Brazil, with an expanded diagnosis and comments on subterranean evolution

Fig. 1. Sinkhole of São Vicente Cave System, São Domingos karst area, Goiás State, Central Brazil – type locality of Eigenmannia vicentespelaea Triques, 1996. Photo: E. M. Bichuette.

Figure 15 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 15. Comparison of the changes between the larval and adult body plans during larval development. The horizontal axis represents developmental stages (Gosner, 1960). The curves plotted depict structural modifications, and the grey area represents metamorphic events that take place during the metamorphic climax (stages 42–46) for most anurans. The early occurrence of metamorphic events (predisplacement) is observed in the ceratophryine frogs, especially in Lepidobatrachus spp., that have precocious metamorphosis. Delayed metamorphic events take place in the development of Pseudis platensis, a species in which some morphological changes that imply the end of metamorphosis for most anurans have yet to finish.

Figure 13 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 13. Variation in structural changes in some external features. A, dorsal view of Lepidobatrachus llanensis at the end of metamorphosis. A small tail stub is present. B, lateral view of the same specimen in (A) showing the angle of the mouth far beyond the posterior margin of the eye. C, dorsal view of Chacophrys pierottii during metamorphosis. The tail has started to reduce. D, lateral view of the same specimen in (C). The disappearance of the caudal fin is advanced, and the angle of the mouth reaches the posterior margin of the eye. E and F, ventral and lateral views of a Pseudis platensis tadpole at the beginning of metamorphosis. The oral disc and keratinized buccal structures are still present, and the forelimbs have emerged, but the anal tube remains well developed. G and H, ventral and lateral views of a P. platensis tadpole during metamorphosis. Larval mouthparts have disappeared; tail regression has started with the reduction of the fins, whereas the disappearance of the anal tube is delayed. I, dorsal view of P. platensis at an advanced metamorphic stage. The tail is conserved and has reduced caudal fins. J, ventral view of the same specimen showing the absence of the anal tube, and features of the mouth that are similar to those present in most anurans at the end of metamorphosis. K, detail in lateral view of the position of the angle of the mouth posterior to the eye.

Figure 12 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 12. Hematoxylin–eosin cross sections (6-Mm thick) at the diaphyseal level of metatarsal IV in postmetamorphic specimens. Black arrowheads indicate lines of arrested growth (LAGs). A, Lepidobatrachus llanensis, five LAGs male [data for two adult males; 5 ± 1 (SVL 74.5 mm) and 6 ± 1 (SVL 74.1 mm)]. B, Lepidobatrachus laevis, six LAGs female [data for two adult females; 6 ± 1 (SVL 144 mm) and 7 ± 1 (SVL 111 mm)]. C, Chacophrys pierottii, four LAGs male [data for two adult males; 6 ± 1 (SVL 49.9 mm) and 4 ± 1 (SVL 45.2 mm)]. D, Ceratophrys cranwelli, 11 LAGs male [data for three adult males; 14 ± 1 (SVL 84.6 mm), 11 ± 1 (SVL 81 mm), and 13 ± 1 (SVL 74.3 mm)]. E, Pseudis platensis, two LAGs female [data for two adults (female and male); 2 ± 1 (SVL 46 mm) and 3 ± 1 (SVL 44.6 mm)]. F, Telmatobius atacamensis, juvenile specimen, two LAGs [data for an adult male; 5 ± 1 (SVL 45.4 mm) and for the juvenile 2 ± 1 (SVL 45 mm)]. Abbreviations: mc; marrow cavity. Scale bars: 0.05 mm.

Figure 11 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 11. Mean, maximum, and minimum values of snout–vent lengths (SVLs) in advanced tadpoles (stages 38–41), during metamorphosis (stages 42–46), and in adults. Values of SVL are given in mm. Light-grey areas approximately represent the extension of larval development (LD) in months, and dark-grey areas refer to postmetamorphic growth (PG) in lines of arrested growth (LAGs). Lepidobatrachus llanensis: SVL in tadpoles (N = 15, SVL = 36.7 ± 3.4 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 26, SVL = 36.3 ± 5.8 mm); SVL of adults (N = 16, SVL = 76.5 ± 7.5 mm). Larval development takes place over a period of 2 weeks. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 6 years. Lepidobatrachus laevis: SVL in tadpoles (N = 12, SVL = 46.6 ± 2.8 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 26, SVL = 49.9 ± 7.8 mm); SVL of adults (N = 13, SVL = 99.2 ± 22.1 mm). Larval development takes over a period of 2 weeks. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 7 years. Chacophrys pierottii: SVL in tadpoles (N = 10, SVL = 46.3 ± 3.9 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 28, SVL = 36.3 ± 2.6 mm); SVL of adults (N = 15, SVL = 47.8 ± 2.7 mm). Larval development takes place over a period of 2 weeks. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 6 years. Ceratophrys cranwelli: SVL in tadpoles (N = 8, SVL = 26.3 ± 3.8 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 18, SVL = 27.5 ± 4.4 mm); SVL of adults (N = 10, SVL = 91.9 ± 12.7 mm). Larval development takes place over a period of 3 weeks. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 14 years. Pseudis platensis: SVL in tadpoles (N = 9, SVL = 46.3 ± 3.6 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 8, SVL = 37.4 ± 2.7 mm); SVL of adults (N = 7, SVL = 45.3 ± 5.0 mm). Larval development takes place over a period of 6 months. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 3 years. Telmatobius atacamensis: SVL in tadpoles (N = 11, SVL = 32.9 ± 3.4 mm); SVL of metamorphic specimens (N = 30, SVL = 31.0 ± 1.8 mm); SVL of adults (N = 2, SVL = 45.2 ± 1.0 mm). Larval development takes place over a period of 8 months. Postmetamorphic growth estimated in LAGs = 5 years.

Figure 14 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 14. Presence and absence of m. suspensoriohyoideus among selected anuran tadpoles, following the criteria proposed by Haas (2003) at larval stage 37. A, Pseudis platensis. The muscle is absent. B–F, the muscle is present. B, Telmatobius atacamensis. C, Lepidobatrachus laevis. D, Lepidobatrachus llanensis. E, Ceratophrys cranwelli. F, Chacophrys pierottii. The absence of m. suspensoriohyoideus was reported for Ceratophrys ornata, L. laevis (Ruibal & Thomas, 1988; Haas, 2003), and C. cranwelli (Vera Candioti, 2005), but Palavecino (1999) described it in C. ornata and C. cranwelli. Haas (2003) proposed that the absence of m. suspensoriohyoideus is a synapomorphy for the Ceratophrys and Lepidobatrachus clade, and Frost et al. (2006) extended the synapomorphy for Ceratophryini. Our data demonstrate the presence of the m. suspensoriohyoideous in tadpoles of the three genera of Ceratophryinae. Abbreviations: oh, m. orbitohyoideus; sh, m. suspensoriohyoideus. Scale bars: 1 mm.

Figure 9 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 9. Palmar and plantar views of the autopodia in anurans at the end of metamorphosis, where subarticular turbercles are already well defined. A, Bombina variegata (foot): subarticular tubercles are absent and metatarsal tubercles are poorly developed. B, Bombina variegata (hand): subarticular tubercles are absent. C, Odontophrynus americanus (foot): subarticular tubercles are evident, and the inner metatarsal is not yet keratinized. D, Odontophrynus americanus (hand): subarticular tubercles are strongly developed. E, Pseudis platensis (foot): tubercles are absent and the inner metatarsal tubercle is defined. F, Pseudis platensis (hand): small subarticular tubercles are evident. G, Telmatobius atacamensis (foot): small subarticular tubercles and the inner metatarsal tubercle are present. H, Telmatobius atacamensis (hand): subarticular tubercles are better defined than in the foot. I, Lepidobatrachus llanensis (foot): subarticular tubercles are absent. The well-developed inner metatarsal tubercle and toe tips are keratinized. J, Lepidobatrachus llanensis (hand): subarticular tubercles are absent. K, Lepidobatrachus laevis (foot): subarticular tubercles are absent, and the inner metatarsal tubercle presents incipient keratinization. L, Lepidobatrachus laevis (hand): subarticular tubercles are absent. M, Ceratophrys cranwellii (foot): small subarticular tubercles are defined, and the inner metatarsal tubercles are poorly keratinized. N, Ceratophrys cranwelli (hand): small subarticular tubercles are present. O, Chacophrys pierottii (foot): subarticular tubercles are not prominent. Inner metatarsal tubercle has keratinization. P, Chacophrys pierottii (hand): subarticular tubercles are well developed. The pattern of distribution of subarticular tubercles is considered as diagnostic in most species, and development of these structures takes place at larval stages 38–40 (Gosner, 1960). Subarticular tubercles in manus and pes are also absent or poorly developed in Xenopus, Hymenochirus, Pipa, Ascaphus, Leiopelma, Alytes, Discoglossus, Madecassophryne, Stumpffia, Rhinoderma, Brachycephalus, Truebella, and Ansonia (Guibé, 1978; Graybeal & Cannatella, 1995; Matsui, Nabhitabhata & Panha, 1998; Pombal & Gasparini, 2006, among others). Scale bar: 0.2 mm.

Figure 10 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 10. Total length (TL) versus snout–vent length (SVL) plotted for larval specimens of six species between stages 39 and 41. Ceratophrys cranwelli tadpoles (N = 8, TL = 61.8 ± 8.2 mm, SVL = 26.3 ± 3.8 mm) are the smallest. Pseudis platensis larvae (N = 9, TL = 129.5 ± 14.4 mm, SVL = 46.3 ± 3.6 mm) are the largest. Lepidobatrachus laevis (N = 12, TL = 98.3 ± 7.2 mm, SVL = 46.6 ± 2.8 mm) and Chacophrys pierottii (N = 10, TL = 106.5 ± 8.0 mm, SVL = 46.3 ± 3.9 mm) share with P. platensis similar values of SVL. Lepidobatrachus llanensis (N = 15, TL = 83.7 ± 7.5 mm, SVL = 36.7 ± 3.4 mm) and Telmatobius atacamensis (N = 11, TL = 84.6 ± 4.8 mm, SVL = 32.9 ± 3.4 mm) are similar in total length, but L. llanensis tadpoles have greater body sizes.

Figure 1 in Morphological evolution in Ceratophryinae frogs (Anura, Neobatrachia): the effects of heterochronic changes during larval development and metamorphosis

Figure 1. The hypothetic relationships among ten anuran taxa that resulted from the analyses of 102 morphological characters. A, the only tree that was obtained from the analysis of larval and adult characters. B, strict consensus of relationships obtained from the analysis of 61 larval characters. C, strict consensus of relationships obtained from the analysis of 41 adult characters.