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79 results for “Anti-predator”
Dissecting the smell of fear from conspecific and heterospecific prey: Investigating the processes that induce anti-predator defenses.
Prey use chemical cues from predation events to obtain information about predation risk to alter their phenotypes. Though we know how many prey respond to predators, we still have a poor understanding of the processes and chemical cues involved during a predation event. We examined how gray treefrog tadpoles (Hyla verisciolor) altered their behavior and morphology when raised with cues from different stages of predator attack, predators fed different amounts of prey, and predators consuming different combinations of treefrog tadpoles or snails (Helisoma trivolvis). We found that starved predators and predators fed snails induced no defensive responses whereas tadpoles exposed to a predator consuming gray treefrogs induced greater hiding, lower activity, and relatively deeper tails. We also found that the tadpoles did not respond to crushed, chewed, or digested conspecifics, but they did respond to consumed (i.e. chewed + digested) conspecifics. When we increased the treefrog biomass consumed by predators, tadpoles frequently increased their defenses when only tadpoles were consumed and always increased their defenses when the total diet biomass was held constant via the inclusion of snails. When predators experienced temporal variation in diet composition, including cues from snails to cause additional digestive cues or chemical noise, there was no effect on tadpole phenotypes. Our results suggest that amphibian prey rely on cues from both chewing and digestion of conspecifics and that the presence of cues from digested heterospecifics play little or no role in adding chemical noise or increased digestive enzymes and by-products that interfere with induced defenses.
New effects of Roundup on amphibians: Predators reduce herbicide mortality while herbicides induce anti-predator morphology, 2006.
The use of pesticides is important for growing crops and protecting human health by reducing the prevalence of targeted pest species. However, less attention is given to the potential unintended effects on nontarget species, including taxonomic groups that are of current conservation concern. One issue raised in recent years is the potential for pesticides to become more lethal in the presence of predatory cues, a phenomenon observed thus far only in the laboratory. A second issue is whether pesticides can induce unintended trait changes in nontarget species, particularly trait changes that might mimic adaptive responses to natural environmental stressors. Using outdoor mesocosms, I created simple wetland communities containing leaf litter, algae, zooplankton, and three species of tadpoles (wood frogs [Rana sylvatica or Lithobates sylvaticus], leopard frogs [R. pipiens or L. pipiens], and American toads [Bufo americanus or Anaxyrus americanus]). I exposed the communities to a factorial combination of environmentally relevant herbicide concentrations (0, 1, 2, or 3 mg acid equivalents [a.e.]/L of Roundup Original MAX) crossed with three predator-cue treatments (no predators, adult newts [Notophthalmus viridescens], or larval dragonflies [Anax junius]). Without predator cues, mortality rates from Roundup were consistent with past studies. Combined with cues from the most risky predator (i.e., dragonflies), Roundup became less lethal (in direct contrast to past laboratory studies). This reduction in mortality was likely caused by the herbicide stratifying in the water column and predator cues scaring the tadpoles down to the benthos where herbicide concentrations were lower. Even more striking was the discovery that Roundup induced morphological changes in the tadpoles. In wood frog and leopard frog tadpoles, Roundup induced relatively deeper tails in the same direction and of the same magnitude as the adaptive changes induced by dragonfly cues. To my knowledge, this i
Relyea, R. A. 2001. The relationship between predation risk and anti-predator responses in larval anurans. Ecology 82:541-554.
Organisms that produce alternative, nondiscrete phenotypes in response to environmental conditions are expected to alter their phenotypes in relation to the degree of environmental change. This idea has been applied to the evolution of antipredator responses by prey, in which it has been hypothesized that prey should respond more strongly to predators that pose greater mortality risk. In a companion paper, I quantified predatorinduced behavioral and morphological responses in six species of larval anurans across five different predator environments and found that these responses were prey- and predatorspecific. In the present study, I addressed whether the responses were related to the level of predation risk posed by each of the predators. Within each prey species, I found that different predators posed different levels of predation risk; within each predator species, different prey species experienced different levels of risk. The differences in predation risk could be understood mechanistically after I quantified differences among predators in their ability to capture, handle, and consume prey and differences among prey in behavior and morphology. Using multivariate analyses, I found that predation risk had no significant effect on how a given prey responds to predators, although there were significant univariate behavioral effects; higher predation risk was related to greater decreases in activity and greater spatial avoidance. I also examined the relationship between risk and response across the six prey species within a predator treatment and found that higher predation risk across species leads to greater decreases in activity in the presence of Umbra and greater increases in tail depth in the presence of Anax. Thus, while previous studies have found relationships between predation risk and prey response when focusing on relatively few species, few predators, and a single trait, this more powerful test using 30 predator–prey combinations and nine traits sugge
A systematic review and meta-analysis of eyespot anti-predator mechanisms
<p>This is the raw data, analysis script, and supplementary materials for "<em>A systematic review and meta-analysis of eyespot anti-predator mechanisms</em>." (<a href="https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.96338.2">https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.96338</a>)</p>
Supplementary material for "Food availability affects parental anti-predator behaviour in red kites"
<p><strong>Abstract</strong></p> <p>Parental investment theory proposes two non-mutually exclusive hypotheses to explain variation in anti-predator behaviour in relation to the age of offspring: the “reproductive value of offspring” hypothesis and the “harm to offspring” hypothesis. The relative importance of the two factors underlying the hypotheses, reproductive value and harm, may change depending on environmental conditions such as food availability. To test the relative importance of the two hypotheses under different food conditions, we conducted a supplementary feeding experiment in red kite (<em>Milvus milvus</em>) breeding pairs and used a live eagle owl (<em>Bubo bubo</em>) as decoy nest predator to trigger anti-predator behaviour. We used time-to-capture in mist nets mounted next to the decoy predator as proxy for mobbing intensity. Under natural food conditions we found a nearly constant mobbing intensity throughout the entire nestling period. However, under food-enhanced conditions mobbing intensity was reduced in parents with young nestlings and increased in parents with old nestlings. These results suggest greater importance of the “reproductive value of offspring” hypothesis in situations of favourable food availability. Moreover, mobbing intensity depended on brood size and weather conditions. The results suggest that parental anti-predator investment increases with the reproductive value of the brood under favourable breeding conditions, but that this pattern is adjusted to the current context, including the vulnerability of the brood and environmental conditions.</p>
Fig. 1 in Physiological responses of anti-predation in prey fish to the threat of piscivorous fish in different underwater visibility conditions
Fig. 1. Mean and standard error of plasma cortisol levels for Astyanax bimaculatus (Linnaeus, 1758) shoals in treatments with clear (white box) and turbid water (striped box). Different letters above bars indicate significant differences at P<0.05 in the Kruskal Wallis test between predator types. There were no differences between plasma cortisol levels in clear and turbid water treatments.
Pattern variation is linked to anti-predator colouration in butterfly larvae
<p>Prey animals typically try to avoid being detected and/or advertise to would-be predators that they should be avoided. Both anti-predator strategies primarily rely on colour to succeed, but the specific patterning used is also important. While the role of patterning in camouflage is relatively clear, the design features of aposematic patterns are less well understood. Here, we use a comparative approach to investigate how pattern use varies across a phylogeny of 268 species of cryptic and aposematic butterfly larvae, which also vary in social behaviour. We find that longitudinal stripes are used more frequently by cryptic larvae and that patterns putatively linked to crypsis are more likely to be used by solitary larvae. In contrast, aposematic larvae are more likely to use horizontal bands and spots, but we find no differences in the use of individual pattern elements between solitary and gregarious aposematic species. However, solitary aposematic larvae are more likely to display multiple pattern elements, whereas those with no pattern are more likely to be gregarious. Our study advances our understanding of how pattern variation, colouration and social behaviour co-vary across lepidopteran larvae, and highlights new questions about how patterning affects larval detectability and predator responses to aposematic prey.</p>
Temperature and turbidity interact synergistically to alter anti-predator behaviour in the Trinidadian guppy
<p>Due to climate change, freshwater habitats are facing increasing temperatures and more extreme weather that disrupts water flow. Together with eutrophication and sedimentation from farming, quarrying and urbanisation, freshwaters are becoming more turbid as well as warmer. Predators and prey need to be able to respond to one another adaptively, yet how changes in temperature and turbidity interact to affect predator-prey behaviour remains unexplored. Using a fully factorial design, we tested the combined effects of increased temperature and turbidity on the behaviour of guppy shoals (<em>Poecilia</em> <em>reticulata</em>) in the presence of one of their natural cichlid predators, the blue acara (<em>Andinoacara</em> <em>pulcher</em>). Our results demonstrate that the prey and predator were in closest proximity in warmer, turbid water, with an interaction between these stressors showing a greater than additive effect. There was also an interaction between the stressors in the inter-individual distances between the prey, where shoal cohesion increased with temperature in clear water, but decreased when temperature increased in turbid water. The closer proximity to predators and reduction in shoaling in turbid, warmer water may increase the risk of predation for the guppy, suggesting that the combined effects of elevated temperature and turbidity may favour predators rather than prey.</p>
Data from: Long-term anti-predator learning and memory N. canaliculata
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Pattern variation is linked to anti-predator colouration in butterfly larvae
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Data from: the flashy escape: support for dynamic flash colouration as anti-predator defence
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Temperature and turbidity interact synergistically to alter anti-predator behaviour in the Trinidadian guppy
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Antagonistic effects of predator colour morph abundance and saliency on prey anti-predator responses
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Data from: Site-level field of view is associated with altered anti-predator responses in farming damselfish
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Data from: From forest to city: Urbanization modulates relative abundance of anti-predator coloration
Increased urbanization has resulted in community changes including alteration of predator communities. Little is known, however, about how such changes affect morphological anti-predator traits. Given the importance of coloration in predator avoidance, this trait in particular is expected to be susceptible to novel selective environments in urban areas. Here we investigate the coloration pattern of a Neotropical anuran species, the túngara frog (Engystomops pustulosus), along an urbanization gradient. Túngara frogs have two distinct color patterns (unstriped and striped) which we found to occur at different frequencies along an urbanization gradient. Striped individuals increased in frequency with urbanization. To assess the strength of selection imposed by predators on the two color morphs, we deployed clay models of túngara frogs in forest and semi-urban populations. In addition, we examined microhabitat selection by individuals of the different morphs. We found higher predation rates associated with urbanization than forested areas. In particular, frogs from forested habitats had lower number of attacks by avian predators. Contrary to our predictions, however, predation rates were similar for both color morphs independent of urbanization. Also, coloration of the frogs did not affect their microhabitat preference. Overall, túngara frogs are more likely to have a striped coloration pattern in semi-urban areas where predation by birds is higher than in the forest. Our findings suggest that factors other than predation pressure shape the coloration pattern of urban frogs and emphasize the complex nature of effects that anthropogenic changes in habitat and predator communities may have on prey morphology.
Data from: Infection reduces anti-predator behaviors in house finches
Infectious diseases can cause host mortality through direct or indirect mechanisms, including altered behavior. Diminished anti-predator behavior is among the most-studied causes of indirect mortality during infection, particularly for systems in which a parasite's life-cycle requires transmission from prey to predator. Significantly less work has examined whether directly-transmitted parasites and pathogens also reduce anti-predator behaviors. Here we test whether the directly-transmitted bacterial pathogen, Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), reduces responses to predation-related stimuli in house finches Haemorhous mexicanus. MG causes conjunctivitis and reduces survival among free-living finches, but rarely causes mortality in captivity, suggesting a role for indirect mechanisms. Wild-caught finches were individually housed in captivity and exposed to the following treatments: 1) visual presence of a stuffed, mounted predator (a Cooper's hawk Accipiter cooperii) or control object (a vase or a stuffed, mounted mallard duck Anas platyrhynchos), 2) vocalizations of the same predator and non-predator, 3) approach of a researcher to enclosures, and 4) simulated predator attack (capture by hand). MG infection reduced anti-predator responses during visual exposure to a mounted predator and simulated predator attack, even for birds without detectable visual obstruction from conjunctivitis. However, MG infection did not significantly alter responses during human approach or audio playback. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that predation plays a role in MG-induced mortality in the wild, with reduced locomotion, a common form of sickness behavior for many taxa, as a likely mechanism. Our results therefore suggest that additional research on the role of sickness behaviors in predation could prove illuminating.
Data from: Anti-predator defenses are linked with high levels of genetic differentiation in frogs
<p>Predator-prey interactions have been suggested as drivers of diversity in different lineages, and the presence of anti-predator defences in some clades is linked to higher rates of diversification. Warning signals are some of the most widespread defenses in the animal world, and there is evidence of higher diversification rates in aposematic lineages. The mechanisms behind such species richness, however, are still unclear. Here, we test whether lineages that use aposematism as anti-predator defense exhibit higher levels of genetic differentiation between populations, leading to increased opportunities for divergence. We collated from the literature > 3,000 pairwise genetic differentiation values across more than 700 populations from over 60 amphibian species. We find evidence that, given the same geographic distance, populations of species of aposematic lineages exhibit greater genetic divergence relative to species that are not aposematic. Our results support a scenario where the use of warning signals could restrict gene flow, and suggest that anti-predator defences could impact divergence between populations and potentially have effects at a macro-evolutionary scale.</p>
First record of anti-predator behavior in the gall-forming aphid Mordwilkoja vagabunda
<p>The gall-forming aphid <em>Mordwilkoja vagabunda</em> has been an outgroup in molecular studies of the evolution of social behavior in the <em>Pemphigus </em>genus, but <em>Mordwilkoja</em> aphids have not previously been assayed for social behavior, such as altruistic defense. This study reports experiments carried out in July in Ithaca, NY, USA, in which nymphs (immature aphids) of <em>M. vagabunda</em> were video recorded under a stereo microscope while they encountered pyralid moth larvae in a plastic arena. <em>M. vagabunda</em> nymphs of all instars<em> </em>used their legs to claw moth larvae while pressing their rostrums against the larvae, possibly to pierce the cuticle. Many of the attacking aphids were alatoid nymphs, rather than the specialized first instar soldiers typically observed in <em>Pemphigus</em> species. <em>M. vagabunda</em> nymphs moved in bursts that sometimes became synchronized among several aphids in the same vicinity. These synchronized, rhythmic movements may be anti-predator defense strategies comparable to the collective twitching and kicking response observed in colonies of <em>Aphis nerii</em> and other aphid species. Defensive behaviors by <em>M. vagabunda</em> nymphs may be altruistic fortress defense strategies which maximize inclusive fitness of the clone.</p>
Dataset for: Sensory environment affects Icelandic threespine stickleback's anti-predator escape behaviour
<p>Human-induced changes in climate and habitats push populations to adapt to novel environments, including new sensory conditions, such as reduced visibility. We studied how colonizing newly formed glacial lakes with turbidity-induced low visibility affects anti-predator behaviour in Icelandic threespine sticklebacks. We tested nearly 400 fish from 15 populations and four habitat types varying in visibility and colonization history in their reaction to two predator cues (mechano-visual versus olfactory) in high versus low visibility light treatments. Fish reacted differently to the cues and were affected by lighting environment, confirming that cue modality and light levels are important for predator detection and evasion. Spring-fed fish, especially from the highlands (likely more diverged from marine fish than lowland fish) reacted fastest to mechano-visual cues and were generally most active. Highland glacial fish showed strong responses to olfactory cues and, counter to predictions from the flexible stem hypothesis, the greatest plasticity in response to light levels. This study, leveraging natural, repeated invasions of novel sensory habitats, 1) illustrates rapid changes in antipredator behaviour that follow due to adaptation, early life experience, or both, and 2) suggests an additional role for behavioural plasticity enabling population persistence in the face of frequent changes in environmental conditions.</p>
Navigating the landscape of fear: Fruit flies exhibit distinct anti-predator and anti-parasite defensive behaviours
<p>Most organisms are at risk of being consumed by a predator or infected by a parasite at some point in their life. Theoretical constructs such as the landscape of fear (perception of risk) and non-consumptive effects (NCEs, costly responses sans predation or infection) have been proposed to describe and quantify anti-predator and anti-parasite responses. How prey/host species identify and respond to these risks determines their survival, reproductive success and, ultimately, fitness. Most studies to date have focused on either predator-prey or parasite-host interactions, yet habitats and ecosystems contain both parasitic and/or predatory species that represent a complex and heterogenous mosaic of risk factors. Here, we experimentally investigated the behavioural responses of a cactophilic fruit fly, <em>Drosophila nigrospiracula</em>, exposed to a range of species that include parasites (ectoparasitic mite), predators (jumping spiders), as well harmless heterospecifics (non-parasitic mites, ants and weevils). We demonstrate that D. nigrospiracula can differentiate between threat and non-threat species, increase erratic movements and decrease velocity in the presence of parasites, but decrease erratic movements and time spent grooming in the presence of predators. Of particular importance, flies could distinguish between parasitic female mites and non-parasitic male mites of the same species, and respond accordingly. We also show that the direction of these non-consumptive effects differ when exposed to parasitic mites (i.e., risk of infection) versus spiders (i.e., risk of predation). Given the opposing effects of predation versus infection risk on fly behaviour, we discuss potential trade-offs between parasite and predator avoidance behaviours. Our findings illustrate the complexity of risk assessment in a landscape of fear and the fine-tuned non-consumptive effects that arise in response. Moreover, this study is the first to examine these behavioural NCEs in a terrestrial system.</p>
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