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FIG. 2 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

FIG. 2. — Free-body diagram of the phalanx in the different scenarios. This figure depicts the boundary conditions, areas of insertion of muscles, and direction of forces. For all loading configurations, joint reaction forces resulted from the rigid boundary constraints that were fixed at the distal joint in X, Y and Z-axes (light blue area), and at the proximal joint in the X-axis (dark blue area). The hammer reaction force (HRF) was applied to the entire palmar surface of the bone. 3.29 N for the HRF was simulated for Sc 1 and 3, and 7.65 N for Sc 2 and 4. Phalanges are shown in palmar (right) and radial (left) views.

FIG. 5 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

FIG. 5. — Box-plots of von Mises stress (MPa) distribution for all species under different scenarios, until Q95 (Sc 1 in grey, Sc 2 in yellow, Sc 3 in green and Sc 4 in red). The first row shows stress distribution of the models using the extant human as a reference to scale muscular forces in all other specimens, whereas the second one shows the results when the chimpanzee is used as a reference. Species are ordered from higher to lower peak stresses.

FIG. 1 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

FIG. 1. — Biomechanical model of hammerstone use: B, corresponds to a zoom in palmar view of the area of interest during A, the grip of a human individual (based on Marzke et al. 1998). B, shows the angles of the muscular forces acting on the PP1. HRF is in 90° relative to the horizontal line for scenarios 1 and 2 and in 45° for scenarios 2 and 4. This force was applied on the entire palmar surface of the PP1 except in the joint areas and is represented with a hatched rectangle. Angles of the muscle forces are shown relative to the horizontal line. Abbreviations: FAP, Adductor Pollicis Force; FAPB, Abductor Pollicis Brevis Force; FFPB, Flexor Pollicis Brevis Force; EPB, direction force was applied in 16.7° and is not showed here as it attached on the dorsal surface of the PP1. Grey rectangles represent the origin areas of the muscles.

FIG. 3 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

FIG. 3. — Von Mises stress maps for all analyzed species under different loading scenarios using the extant human as reference to scale the simulated muscular forces in all other specimens. Species are ordered from higher to lower peak stresses values. Phalanges are shown at the same length. MPa bar is set at 12 MPa.

FIG. 4 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

FIG. 4. — Von Mises stress maps for all analyzed species under different loading scenarios using the chimpanzee as reference to scale the simulated muscular forces in all other specimens. Species are ordered from higher to lower peak stresses values. Images are not scaled. MPa is set at 25 MPa.

TABLE 2 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

TABLE 2. — Percentage of main locomotor behavoir of the non-human sample, according to Hunt (2004).<table><tbody><tr><th>Taxon</th><th>Climb</th><th>Braquiate</th><th>Clamber</th><th>Walk</th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>6.5</td><td>0.8</td><td>0.0</td><td>89.9</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>19.7</td><td>3.6</td><td>0.0</td><td>64.4</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>31.3</td><td>15.5</td><td>40.7</td><td>12.0</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>34.2</td><td>51.2</td><td>0.0</td><td>0.0</td></tr></tbody></table>

opencc-by-4.0Oct 2022View details →

Estimation of axial loads in tie-rods: Dataset generated from Finite Element simulations for training Artificial Neural Network

Dataset employed for training the Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) presented in the cited journal article. The trained ANNs were used to estimate the tensile force in tie-rods installed in a historical structure (the church of the monastery of Sant Cugat close to Barcelona) from dynamic parameters obtained from vibration testing. The dataset consists of input-otput data generated using finite element (FE) simulations. A blank column has been used to separate input data from output data. More details on the nature of the data and how it was employed can be found in the following journal article, which is supplemented by this upload: Makoond N, Pelà L, Molins C. Robust estimation of axial loads sustained by tie-rods in historical structures using Artificial Neural Networks. Structural Health Monitoring. 2022;0(0). doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/14759217221123326">10.1177/14759217221123326</a> <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364098652_Robust_estimation_of_axial_loads_sustained_by_tie-rods_in_historical_structures_using_Artificial_Neural_Networks">Link to author's version of accepted manuscript</a> This work was supported by the Servei del Patrimoni Arquitectònic of the Generalitat de Catalunya through a project (managed by the City Council of Sant Cugat) aimed at monitoring the church of the Monastery of Sant Cugat (grant number C-10764). Financial support is also acknowledged from the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities of the Spanish Government and the ERDF (European Regional Development Fund) through the SEVERUS project (Multilevel evaluation of seismic vulnerability and risk mitigation of masonry buildings in resilient historical urban centres) (grant number RTI2018-099589-B-I00).

opencc-by-4.0May 2023View details →

Deformation simulation results of Capriccio method coupled systems for conducting comparative one- and multidimensional studies on the coupling of the finite element method with particle-based techniques

readme_3Dresults.txt Description: This readme explains the content and path structure of the results obtained from a deformation test conducted on slightly different MD-FE coupled systems performing the Capriccio method in a three-dimensional space within the associated project thesis [1], published on the following dataset: <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7924367">https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7924367</a> Furthermore, input files and parameters as well as potential tables required to reproduce the obtained data are provided as well. The molecular dynamics (MD) part is executed in LAMMPS and the finite element (FE) method part by a MATLAB script as described in Section 4.1 of [1]. The whole setup of the 3D models is elaborated in Section 4.2 of [1]. A discussion of some results is given in Chapter 6 of [1] in the context of assessing their comparability with the corresponding 1D model. Context: [1] L. Laubert, "Establishing a framework for conducting comparative one- and multidimensional studies on the coupling of the finite element method with particle-based techniques", Project Thesis, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 2023. Contact: Lukas Laubert Institute of Applied Mechanics Friedrich-Alexander-Universiät Erlangen-Nürnberg Egerlandstraße 5 91058 Erlangen License: Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial 4.0 International Path structure and files: - The ZIP compressed files each contain a folder containing all simulation files as well as   postprocessing variables: * /FE_data/ contains all output files after each FE simulation in each iteration step * /MD_data/ contains all output files after each MD simulation in each iteration step * /input_files/ contains the input FE model "cgps_dpd_c_1_2000.inp", the MD particle   configurations "cgps_dpd_c_1_2000.data", the AP particle coordinates    "cgps_dpd_c_1_2000.ac" as well as further Abaqus CAE FE files that   can be used to adapt the present FE model * /input_parameters/ contains the parameter dataset; "Capriccio.prm" is the main parameter   dataset, whose adaptations lead to similar adjustments in the other parameter files * "Capriccio_FEMD_main_meggie_WZ.sh" is a shell script for executing simulations * "job.out" is an output protocol that documents the progress of the simulations * "Job.err" is an error protocol that documents detected errors during the simulations * "log.lammps" logs MD parameter sets * "meta.info" provides version information of used softwares among few other information * "next_job.info" documents the next load step and iteration step that is to be executed   when simulation jobs are restarted on the used computation cluser * **_workspace_vars.mat comprises a set of postprocessing variables obtained by executing a   postprocessing script provided by Capriccio group - "md_dpd_main-CBpot-writeobs-sandw.in" is an input script that further defines and loads   MD simulation parameter - ***_table are potential tables applied during the MD simulations * "Angle_table" lists the angle bending potential * "Bond_table" lists the bond potentials * "Nonbond_table" lists the non-bonded interaction potential

opencc-by-4.0Sep 2023View details →

Simulation data of Schmidt et al., A three-dimensional finite element formulation coupling electrochemistry and solid mechanics on resolved microstructures of all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cma.2023.116468

This data set includes the simulation results of the relevant simulations published in the paper: "Schmidt et al., A three-dimensional finite element formulation coupling electrochemistry and solid mechanics on resolved microstructures of all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cma.2023.116468". Please refer to the paper for the details of the model as well as the parameterization of the model for the respective simulations. The provided lzip archive is structured into separate folders, one per simulation. Each folder contains the output data and a short README.txt with further hints. For information on the compression algorithm and how to uncompress it lzip please refer to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lzip.

dryad36/100

Animations of vibration modes obtained from finite element simulations performed on the skull of a juvenile gray whale

The tympanoperiotic complex (TPC) plays a crucial role in whale hearing. It is a functional unit composed of three bony structures: the periotic (firmly embedded in the skull), the tympanic bulla (suspended from the skull on flexible suspensory pedicles), and the ossicular chain that connects the stapes footplate closing the oval window in the periotic with the tympanic [Mead 2009]. Hearing of mysticetes is ostensibly facilitated by the same mechanism as in most mammals: the ossicular chain is set in motion, and the stapes footplate consequently pushes on the cochlear fluid [Cranford 2018]. The ossicular chain connects the periotic bone, which houses the inner ear, with the bulla. Therefore, the most plausible mechanism for setting the ossicles in motion is a vibration of the bulla relative to the periotic bone. A juvenile gray whale head (LACM 97758) was acquired from the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. The specimen had been collected and transferred to a freezer soon after death, thereby preserving its fresh condition. The specimen underwent X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning in two phases, first intact with all tissues and subsequently after removal of soft tissues superficial to the skull, as described by Cranford [in preparation].

opencc-zeroApr 2024View details →

APPENDIX 3 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

APPENDIX 3. — Mesh-weighted arithmetic mean (MWAM), mesh-weighted median (MWM), quartiles values (Q25, 50, 75 and 95), percentage error of the arithmetic mean (PEofAM) and percentage error of the median (PEofM) for each species and loading scenario, under chimpanzee-scaled conditions.<table><tbody><tr><th>SPECIE</th><th>SCENARIO</th><th>N of Elements</th><th>MWAM</th><th>MWM</th><th>Q25</th><th>Q50</th><th>Q75</th><th>M95</th><th>PEofAM</th><th>PEofM</th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>1</td><td>160104</td><td>8.0122</td><td>7.6599</td><td>4.2909</td><td>7.8345</td><td>11.4830</td><td>14.6530</td><td>0.0387</td><td>2.2794</td></tr><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>2</td><td>160104</td><td>5.7312</td><td>5.4881</td><td>3.0880</td><td>5.6170</td><td>8.2101</td><td>10.4363</td><td>0.0341</td><td>2.3483</td></tr><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>3</td><td>160104</td><td>8.0771</td><td>7.7090</td><td>4.3233</td><td>7.8865</td><td>11.5780</td><td>14.7960</td><td>0.0417</td><td>2.3024</td></tr><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>4</td><td>160104</td><td>5.8607</td><td>5.5899</td><td>3.1557</td><td>5.7215</td><td>8.3844</td><td>10.7170</td><td>0.0419</td><td>2.3534</td></tr><tr><th>Modern Human</th><td>1</td><td>225743</td><td>7.5983</td><td>5.4469</td><td>3.0316</td><td>5.5620</td><td>11.3770</td><td>19.8150</td><td>0.7364</td><td>2.1135</td></tr><tr><th>Modern Human</th><td>2</td><td>225743</td><td>5.3623</td><td>3.8494</td><td>2.1389</td><td>3.9323</td><td>8.0325</td><td>13.9420</td><td>0.7334</td><td>2.1536</td></tr><tr><th>Modern Human</th><td>3</td><td>225720</td><td>7.6821</td><td>5.4907</td><td>3.0617</td><td>5.6072</td><td>11.4980</td><td>20.0690</td><td>0.7328</td><td>2.1222</td></tr><tr><th>Modern Human</th><td>4</td><td>225689</td><td>5.5209</td><td>3.9340</td><td>2.1951</td><td>4.0167</td><td>8.2813</td><td>14.4290</td><td>0.7156</td><td>2.1020</td></tr><tr><th>Neanderthal</th><td>1</td><td>240469</td><td>7.5408</td><td>5.7398</td><td>3.1415</td><td>5.8463</td><td>10.7260</td><td>19.1300</td><td>1.6003</td><td>1.8559</td></tr><tr><th>Neanderthal</th><td>2</td><td>240461</td><td>5.3229</td><td>4.0535</td><td>2.2448</td><td>4.1316</td><td>7.5691</td><td>13.4480</td><td>1.5817</td><td>1.9264</td></tr><tr><th>Neanderthal</th><td>3</td><td>240469</td><td>7.6103</td><td>5.7887</td><td>3.1663</td><td>5.8917</td><td>10.8170</td><td>19.3540</td><td>1.6076</td><td>1.7799</td></tr><tr><th>Neanderthal</th><td>4</td><td>240460</td><td>5.4615</td><td>4.1433</td><td>2.2936</td><td>4.2210</td><td>7.7516</td><td>13.9010</td><td>1.6017</td><td>1.8739</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>1</td><td>327267</td><td>7.5848</td><td>6.5180</td><td>4.1315</td><td>6.6614</td><td>10.0078</td><td>15.9652</td><td>0.1499</td><td>2.2001</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>2</td><td>327267</td><td>5.3112</td><td>4.5847</td><td>2.9071</td><td>4.6850</td><td>6.9811</td><td>11.1340</td><td>0.1473</td><td>2.1877</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>3</td><td>327267</td><td>7.7032</td><td>6.5956</td><td>4.1665</td><td>6.7425</td><td>10.1980</td><td>16.2770</td><td>0.1521</td><td>2.2272</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>4</td><td>327267</td><td>5.5459</td><td>4.7386</td><td>2.9746</td><td>4.8493</td><td>7.3571</td><td>11.7390</td><td>0.1536</td><td>2.3361</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>1</td><td>199857</td><td>7.9291</td><td>6.5783</td><td>4.2297</td><td>6.7471</td><td>10.3643</td><td>18.0617</td><td>0.6350</td><td>2.5660</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>2</td><td>199857</td><td>5.6296</td><td>4.6925</td><td>3.0326</td><td>4.8168</td><td>7.3231</td><td>12.7377</td><td>0.6308</td><td>2.6495</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>3</td><td>199782</td><td>8.0098</td><td>6.6472</td><td>4.2716</td><td>6.8239</td><td>10.4630</td><td>18.2554</td><td>0.6575</td><td>2.6582</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>4</td><td>199782</td><td>5.7884</td><td>4.8286</td><td>3.1119</td><td>4.9592</td><td>7.5206</td><td>13.1060</td><td>0.6481</td><td>2.7040</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>1</td><td>311442</td><td>12.1044</td><td>10.4260</td><td>6.1984</td><td>10.5940</td><td>16.2630</td><td>26.8950</td><td>0.1734</td><td>1.6114</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>2</td><td>311431</td><td>8.6667</td><td>7.4740</td><td>4.4483</td><td>7.5885</td><td>11.6390</td><td>19.2340</td><td>0.1762</td><td>1.5325</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>3</td><td>311442</td><td>12.1825</td><td>10.4940</td><td>6.2322</td><td>10.6650</td><td>16.3650</td><td>27.0820</td><td>0.1744</td><td>1.6295</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>4</td><td>311442</td><td>8.8241</td><td>7.6109</td><td>4.5179</td><td>7.7380</td><td>11.8330</td><td>19.6238</td><td>0.1753</td><td>1.6704</td></tr></tbody></table>

APPENDIX 2 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

APPENDIX 2. — Number of elements (N elements), mesh-weighted arithmetic mean (MWAM), mesh-weighted median (MWM), quartiles values (Q25, 50, 75 and 95), percentage error of the arithmetic mean (PEofAM) and percentage error of the median (PeofM) for each species and loading scenario, under human-scaled conditions.<table><tbody><tr><th>INDIVIDUAL</th><th>SCENARIO</th><th>N of Elements</th><th>MWAM</th><th>MWM</th><th>Q25</th><th>Q50</th><th>Q75</th><th>M95</th><th>PEofAM</th><th>PEofM</th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>Modern Human</th><td>1</td><td>225689</td><td>3.7540</td><td>2.6128</td><td>1.3997</td><td>2.6690</td><td>5.6844</td><td>10.0261</td><td>0.7130</td><td>2.1509</td></tr><tr><th>Modern Human</th><td>2</td><td>225729</td><td>2.5238</td><td>1.7800</td><td>0.9680</td><td>1.8227</td><td>3.8100</td><td>6.6442</td><td>0.7309</td><td>2.3997</td></tr><tr><th>Modern Human</th><td>3</td><td>225689</td><td>3.8349</td><td>2.6530</td><td>1.4269</td><td>2.7080</td><td>5.8135</td><td>10.2790</td><td>0.7100</td><td>2.0714</td></tr><tr><th>Modern Human</th><td>4</td><td>225710</td><td>2.6876</td><td>1.8662</td><td>1.0241</td><td>1.9051</td><td>4.0670</td><td>7.1455</td><td>0.7225</td><td>2.0867</td></tr><tr><th>Neanderthal</th><td>1</td><td>240478</td><td>3.7401</td><td>2.7851</td><td>1.5604</td><td>2.8336</td><td>5.3814</td><td>9.6489</td><td>1.6161</td><td>1.7432</td></tr><tr><th>Neanderthal</th><td>2</td><td>240469</td><td>2.5277</td><td>1.8985</td><td>1.0995</td><td>1.9326</td><td>3.6118</td><td>6.4210</td><td>1.5858</td><td>1.7975</td></tr><tr><th>Neanderthal</th><td>3</td><td>240469</td><td>3.8275</td><td>2.8449</td><td>1.6271</td><td>2.8931</td><td>5.4883</td><td>9.8692</td><td>1.6163</td><td>1.6943</td></tr><tr><th>Neanderthal</th><td>4</td><td>240471</td><td>2.6708</td><td>1.9879</td><td>1.1443</td><td>2.0203</td><td>3.8108</td><td>6.8892</td><td>1.6184</td><td>1.6299</td></tr><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>1</td><td>160103</td><td>4.1812</td><td>3.9750</td><td>2.2535</td><td>4.0610</td><td>5.9939</td><td>7.6454</td><td>0.0015</td><td>2.1631</td></tr><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>2</td><td>160104</td><td>2.8698</td><td>2.7413</td><td>1.5694</td><td>2.8039</td><td>4.0960</td><td>5.1944</td><td>0.0004</td><td>2.2836</td></tr><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>3</td><td>160046</td><td>4.2475</td><td>4.0192</td><td>2.2864</td><td>4.1141</td><td>6.0832</td><td>7.7941</td><td>0.0148</td><td>2.3599</td></tr><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>4</td><td>160104</td><td>3.0042</td><td>2.8468</td><td>1.6410</td><td>2.9113</td><td>4.2753</td><td>5.4869</td><td>0.0164</td><td>2.2646</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>1</td><td>225710</td><td>2.6876</td><td>1.8662</td><td>1.0241</td><td>1.9051</td><td>4.0670</td><td>7.1455</td><td>0.7225</td><td>2.0867</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>2</td><td>327267</td><td>2.4440</td><td>2.1049</td><td>1.3316</td><td>2.1522</td><td>3.1882</td><td>5.1728</td><td>0.1482</td><td>2.2471</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>3</td><td>327267</td><td>3.7738</td><td>3.1737</td><td>1.9572</td><td>3.2548</td><td>5.0131</td><td>8.1784</td><td>0.1610</td><td>2.5570</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>4</td><td>327267</td><td>2.6870</td><td>2.2688</td><td>1.3987</td><td>2.3215</td><td>3.5807</td><td>5.7799</td><td>0.1603</td><td>2.3228</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>1</td><td>199857</td><td>4.0409</td><td>3.3878</td><td>2.1630</td><td>3.4804</td><td>5.2597</td><td>9.1689</td><td>0.6450</td><td>2.7344</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>2</td><td>199857</td><td>2.7519</td><td>2.3201</td><td>1.5089</td><td>2.3899</td><td>3.5526</td><td>6.1413</td><td>0.6300</td><td>3.0085</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>3</td><td>199813</td><td>4.1216</td><td>3.4543</td><td>2.2075</td><td>3.5543</td><td>5.3691</td><td>9.3611</td><td>0.6596</td><td>2.8941</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>4</td><td>199813</td><td>2.9129</td><td>2.4571</td><td>1.5893</td><td>2.5330</td><td>3.7670</td><td>6.5330</td><td>0.6369</td><td>3.0885</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>1</td><td>311431</td><td>6.3313</td><td>5.4576</td><td>3.2272</td><td>5.5294</td><td>8.5269</td><td>14.0750</td><td>0.1785</td><td>1.3156</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>2</td><td>311442</td><td>4.3431</td><td>3.7514</td><td>2.2259</td><td>3.8016</td><td>5.8425</td><td>9.6143</td><td>0.1738</td><td>1.3370</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>3</td><td>311442</td><td>6.4105</td><td>5.5281</td><td>3.2583</td><td>5.6069</td><td>8.6284</td><td>14.2694</td><td>0.1767</td><td>1.4247</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>4</td><td>311442</td><td>4.5087</td><td>3.9023</td><td>2.3007</td><td>3.9605</td><td>6.0438</td><td>10.0180</td><td>0.1783</td><td>1.4927</td></tr></tbody></table>

TABLE 3 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

TABLE 3. — Mesh characteristics for each one of the specimens.Abbreviations: a, volume of the cortical bone; b, volume of trabecular bone; c, number of elements used to create the mesh for each FE model.<table><tbody><tr><th>Specimen</th><th>Volume CB (mm 3) a</th><th>Volume TB (mm 3) b</th><th>N elementsc</th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>Modern human</th><td>1012.8</td><td>651.1</td><td>225729</td></tr><tr><th>Neanderthal</th><td>733.3</td><td>662.6</td><td>240469</td></tr><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>1046.1</td><td>178.6</td><td>160103</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>1642.9</td><td>577.9</td><td>225710</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>610.1</td><td>542.8</td><td>199857</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>250.7</td><td>65.9</td><td>311431</td></tr></tbody></table>

APPENDIX 1 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

APPENDIX 1. — Loads applied to the models for each one of the species under analysis and simulated loading scenarios. Abbreviations: a, forces (N) and angles (Ɵ) relative to the longitudinal axes of the bone; b, muscle forces for the human and chimpanzee reference models, respectively, are separate by a slash; c, force reactions in the proximal and distal joints were scaled to remove size effects when computing stress distributions.<table><tbody><tr><th>Specimen</th><th>SC</th><th>HRFa</th><th>FPB HS /FPB PTb</th><th>AP HS /AP PTb</th><th>EPB HS /EPB PTb</th><th>ABP HS /ABP PTb</th><th>JRFc d</th><th></th><th>JRFc mc</th><th></th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th></th><td></td><td>N</td><td>Ɵ</td><td>N</td><td>Ɵ</td><td>N</td><td>Ɵ</td><td>N</td><td>Ɵ</td><td>N</td><td>Ɵ</td><td>N</td><td>Ɵ</td><td>N</td><td>Ɵ</td></tr><tr><th>Modern Human</th><td>1 2 3 4</td><td>3.92 7.65 3.92 7.65</td><td>90 90 45 45</td><td>17.95/37.20 13.49/27.95 17.95/37.20 13.49/27.95</td><td>45 45 45 45</td><td>38.79/66.43 29.15/49.91 38.79/66.43 29.15/49.91</td><td>61.2 61.2 61.2 61.2</td><td>4.33/28.75 2.74/18.18 4.33/28.75 2.74/18.18</td><td>16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7</td><td>5.28/35.94 3.34/22.72 5.28/35.94 3.34/22.72</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>44.06/89.27 28.26/61.46 45.21/90.33 30.70/63.62</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>38.81/114.1 28.02/78.76 37.96/113.3 26.36/77.14</td><td>180 180 180 180</td></tr><tr><th>Neanderthal</th><td>1 2 3 4</td><td>3.92 7.65 3.92 7.65</td><td>90 90 45 45</td><td>14.47/29.99 10.87/22.54 14.47/29.99 10.87/22.54</td><td>45 45 45 45</td><td>31.28/53.56 23.50/40.24 31.28/53.56 23.50/40.24</td><td>61.2 61.2 61.2 61.2</td><td>3.49/23.18 2.21/14.66 3.49/23.18 2.21/14.66</td><td>16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7</td><td>4.26/28.98 2.69/18.32 4.26/28.98 2.69/22.72</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>35.55/72.02 22.79/49.58 36.46/72.85 24.75/51.29</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>30.75/91.35 22.36/63.11 30.27/90.88 21.41/62.18</td><td>180 180 180 180</td></tr><tr><th>Chimpanzee</th><td>1 2 3 4</td><td>3.92 7.65 3.92 7.65</td><td>90 90 45 45</td><td>18.34/38.01 13.78/28.56 18.34/38.01 13.78/28.56</td><td>45 45 45 45</td><td>39.64/67.88 29.78/51.00 39.64/67.88 29.78/51.00</td><td>61.2 61.2 61.2 61.2</td><td>– – – –</td><td>– – – –</td><td>5.39/36.72 3.41/23.22 5.39/36.76 3.41/23.22</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>43.78/82.63 28.05/57.36 45.11/83.92 30.92/60.02</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>35.51/90.61 26.15/64.17 35.78/90.89 26.7/64.7</td><td>180 180 180 180</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla</th><td>1 2 3 4</td><td>3.92 7.65 3.92 7.65</td><td>90 90 45 45</td><td>24.78/51.36 18.62/38.59 24.78/51.36 18.62/38.36</td><td>45 45 45 45</td><td>53.55/91.71 40.24/68.91 53.55/91.71 40.24/68.91</td><td>61.2 61.2 61.2 61.2</td><td>5.97/39.69 3.78/25.10 5.97/39.69 3.78/25.10</td><td>16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7</td><td>7.29/49.61 4.61/31.37 7.29/49.61 4.61/31.37</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>61.17/125.1 39.33/86.13 64.27/128.2 45.94/92.39</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>49.14/144.11 35.31/99.38 49.57/144.53 36.15/100.2</td><td>180 180 180 180</td></tr><tr><th>Orangutan</th><td>1 2 3 4</td><td>3.92 7.65 3.92 7.65</td><td>90 90 45 45</td><td>19.74/40.91 14.83/30.74 19.74/40.91 14.83/30.74</td><td>45 45 45 45</td><td>42.66/73.06 32.06/54.90 42.66/73.06 32.06/54.90</td><td>61.2 61.2 61.2 61.2</td><td>– – – –</td><td>– – – –</td><td>5.80/39.52 3.67/24.99 5.80/39.52 3.67/24.99</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>47.62/89.76 30.56/62.34 49.01/91.09 33.44/65.02</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>47.85/117.2 34.51/82.77 50.55/119.84 39.78/87.92</td><td>180 180 180 180</td></tr><tr><th>Gibbon</th><td>1 2 3 4</td><td>3.92 7.65 3.92 7.65</td><td>90 90 45 45</td><td>7.08/14.66 5.32/11.02 7.08/14.66 5.32/11.02</td><td>45 45 45 45</td><td>15.29/26.1 11.49/19.68 15.29/26.19 11.49/19.68</td><td>61.2 61.2 61.2 61.2</td><td>– – – –</td><td>– – – –</td><td>2.08/14.17 1.32/8.96 2.08/14.17 1.32/8.96</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>17.75/32.87 11.25/22.87 17.88/33.25 12.1/23.65</td><td>180 180 180 180</td><td>19.08/45.46 13.75/32.18 19.64/46.00 14.84/33.24</td><td>180 180 180 180</td></tr></tbody></table>

TABLE 1 in Finite element analysis of the proximal phalanx of the thumb in Hominoidea during simulated stone tool use

TABLE 1. — Sample. Abbreviations: a, age of individuals, if known; unk: unknown. b, M: male; F: female. c, R: right; L: left.<table><tbody><tr><th>Species</th><th>Common name</th><th>Age a</th><th>Sex b</th><th>Side</th><th>Digital database/ no</th><th>CT/microCT resolution (mm)</th></tr></tbody><tbody><tr><th>Homo sapiens</th><td>Modern human</td><td>59</td><td>M</td><td>R</td><td>None</td><td>0.08</td></tr><tr><th>Homo neanderthalensis</th><td>Neanderthal</td><td>unk</td><td>unk</td><td>R</td><td>NESPOS/ Krapina 202</td><td>0.03</td></tr><tr><th>Pan troglodytes</th><td>Chimpanzee</td><td>29</td><td>M</td><td>L</td><td>KURPI/345</td><td>0.219</td></tr><tr><th>Gorilla gorilla</th><td>Gorilla</td><td>38</td><td>M</td><td>R</td><td>KUPRI/1353</td><td>0.500</td></tr><tr><th>Pongo pygmaeus</th><td>Orangutan</td><td>32</td><td>F</td><td>R</td><td>None</td><td>0.03</td></tr><tr><th>Hylobates lar</th><td>Gibbon</td><td>33</td><td>M</td><td>R</td><td>KUPRI/465</td><td>0.250</td></tr></tbody></table>