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Figure 10. A in The phylogeny and taxonomy of Hippopotamidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): a review based on morphology and cladistic analysis

Figure 10. A new phylogeny for the Hippopotamidae. Geographical distribution: anot Eastern African, but from Abu Dhabi, the Arab United Emirates, the Arabic Peninsula (see Gentry, 1999); bknown in Eastern Africa but also in Oubeidiyeh, Israel (see Faure, 1986) and maybe in Algeria (Geraads, 1980); cknown in Africa but also in continental Europe (see Mazza, 1995).

Figure 9 in The phylogeny and taxonomy of Hippopotamidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): a review based on morphology and cladistic analysis

Figure 9. Mandibular anatomy within the Hippopotamidae. This figure shows the new taxonomic divisions of the family Hippopotamidae and, for each discussed taxon, some of the mandibular characters that provided additional support to the clades identified in the parsimony analysis (boxes in this figure). These features include: the general shape of the mandible, with expansion of the canine processes and relative length of the symphysis (seen in the dorsal outlines); the shape of the symphysis sagittal cross section; the length of the premolar row relative to the length of the molar row. The figure shows the following features for the taxa listed under each genus name: Saotherium, very inclined symphysis with thin cross-section and poorly developed canine processes; Archaeopotamus, relatively long and shallow symphysis with poorly developed canine processes and longer premolar rows than in any other clade; Hexaprotodon, wide symphysis but with poorly differentiated canine processes, very robust symphysis in cross section; Choeropsis, very short symphysis globular in cross section and poorly developed canine processes; Hippopotamus and aff. Hippopotamus, short symphysis globular in crosssection (lacking a projected incisor alveolar process) and strong extension of the canine processes – the latter feature being not salient in the Afar species (aff. Hip. coryndoni, aff. Hip. afarensis) and aff. Hip. cf. protamphibius from Kanapoi.

Figure 8 in The phylogeny and taxonomy of Hippopotamidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): a review based on morphology and cladistic analysis

Figure 8. An example of convergence in the Hippopotamidae: orbit elevation. From bottom to top, right lateral views of the neuro-crania: KNM-WT 19633, Hippopotamus gorgops from the Nachukui Formation, West Turkana, Kenya, housed at the NMK, Nairobi; 36824, Hexaprotodon palaeindicus from the Narbada beds, Central India, housed at the NHM, London; KNM-ER 798, holotype of Hex. karumensis, from the Koobi Fora Formation, East Turkana, Kenya, housed at the NMK, Nairobi. The elevated orbit is related to an aquatic way of life (Mazin & Buffrénil, 2001), indicating a preferential position at the air/water interface. These three species belong to three different lineages and evolved from forms with much lower orbits.

Figure 5. Dental character states. A in The phylogeny and taxonomy of Hippopotamidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): a review based on morphology and cladistic analysis

Figure 5. Dental character states. A, upper canine cross section (from left to right: in Anthracokeryx ulnifer, in Hippopotamus amphibius, in Hexaprotodon bruneti, in Hex. harvardi). B, outline of the P1/alveolus (bottom: in Hex. protamphibius, top: in Hex. sivalensis). C, occlusal view of the P3/ (left: in Hex. bruneti, right: in Hex. protamphibius). D, occlusal view of the P4/ (left: in Hex. harvardi, right: both in Hex. protamphibius). E, occlusal view of the P/4 (left: in Hex. mingoz, right: in Hex. aethiopicus).

Figure 4. Mandibular character states. A in The phylogeny and taxonomy of Hippopotamidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): a review based on morphology and cladistic analysis

Figure 4. Mandibular character states. A, dorsal view of Hexaprotodon aff. sahabiensis mandible. B, dorsal view of Hippopotamus amphibius mandible. C, dorsal view of Hex. karumensis mandible. D, sagittal cross section (at the I/1-I/1 diastema) of the symphysis (bottom: in Hex. sivalensis, top: in Hip. amphibius); E, three schematic anterior views of the symphysis (from left to right: in Hex. mingoz, in some Hex. protamphibius, in Hex. bruneti). F, three schematic lateral views of the vertical ramus (from bottom to top: in Hip. amphibius, in Hex. sivalensis, in Anthracokeryx ulnifer).

Figure 2. Cranial character states. A in The phylogeny and taxonomy of Hippopotamidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): a review based on morphology and cladistic analysis

Figure 2. Cranial character states. A, ventral view of a Hippopotamus amphibius skull. B, ventral view of a Hexaprotodon liberiensis skull. C, Schematic view of Hex. harvardi tympanic bulla area. D, Schematic view of A. ulnifer glenoid articular area. E, Three dorsal views of different bone contacts in the lachrymal area (from bottom to top: in Hex. harvardi, in Hex. protamphibius, in Hip. amphibius). A1 and A2 are Hex. liberiensis autapomorphies (see text).

Figure 11 in The phylogeny and taxonomy of Hippopotamidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): a review based on morphology and cladistic analysis

Figure 11. Comparison of mandibular symphysis measurements between the 'narrow muzzled' hippos and other hippopotamids (only adult specimens were included): bivariate plot of sagittal length of symphysis vs. width between lower canines (all adult specimens). Legend: ¥, Archaeopotamus lothagamensis from Lothagam, Kenya; +, A. aff. lothagamensis from Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Ł, A. harvardi from Lothagam, Kenya; Δ, A. aff. harvardi from Rawi, Kenya; K, UMP 6202, Hexaprotodon? cf. imagunculus from Kazinga Channel, Uganda; Ɨ, other fossil hippopotamids; Z Choeropsis liberiensis, extant; O, Hippopotamus amphibius, extant. Broken line: regression line for the genus Archaeopotamus; unbroken line: regression line for all the other individuals.

Figure 7 in The phylogeny and taxonomy of Hippopotamidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): a review based on morphology and cladistic analysis

Figure 7. Second of the three most parsimonious tree obtained from the cladistic analysis. The bold numbers indicate the nodes. The numbered boxes indicate the ACCTRAN character state changes (white boxes indicate reversions and convergences).

Figure 1 in The phylogeny and taxonomy of Hippopotamidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): a review based on morphology and cladistic analysis

Figure 1. Synthesis of recent phylogenies (Harrison, 1997; Weston, 2000) for the family Hippopotamidae. The genus Hexaprotodon is shown to be paraphyletic, and Hippopotamus being related to the derived species Hex. protamphibius. The important position of Hex. harvardi and the early divergence of the Hex. liberiensis lineage can be also noted.

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Subspecies and Distribution. H.a.amphibiusLinnaeus,1758—sub-SaharanAfrica,exceptasbelow. H.a.capensisDesmoulins,1825—ZambiaStoSouthAfrica. H. a. kiboko Heller, 1914 — Kenya and Somalia. in Hippopotamidae

Subspecies and Distribution. H.a.amphibiusLinnaeus,1758—sub-SaharanAfrica,exceptasbelow. H.a.capensisDesmoulins,1825—ZambiaStoSouthAfrica. H. a. kiboko Heller, 1914 — Kenya and Somalia.

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Subspecies and Distribution. C.l.liberiensisMorton,1849—Guinea,SierraLeone,Liberia,IvoryCoast. C. l. heslop: Corbet, 1969 — Nigeria (possibly extinct). in Hippopotamidae

Subspecies and Distribution. C.l.liberiensisMorton,1849—Guinea,SierraLeone,Liberia,IvoryCoast. C. l. heslop: Corbet, 1969 — Nigeria (possibly extinct).

Fig. 4 in Choeropsis liberiensis (Artiodactyla: Hippopotamidae)

Fig. 4.—An adult female Choeropsis liberiensis in Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. Image used with permission of the photographer, Mark-Oliver Rödel, Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany.

Fig. 3 in Choeropsis liberiensis (Artiodactyla: Hippopotamidae)

Fig. 3.—Geographic distribution of Choeropsis liberiensis and C. heslopi. Map prepared by Flora Ihlow, Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, based on International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Red List map data (Ransom et al. 2015).

Fig. 2 in Choeropsis liberiensis (Artiodactyla: Hippopotamidae)

Fig. 2.—Dorsal, ventral, and lateral views of skull and lateral view of mandible of an adult female Choeropsis liberiensis (ZFMK [Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig] MAM 1965.0570) from Côte d'Ivoire. Greatest length of skull is 339 mm. Images used with permission of the photographer Georg Oleschinski.

Fig. 1 in Choeropsis liberiensis (Artiodactyla: Hippopotamidae)

Fig. 1.—An adult female Choeropsis liberiensis, at the Center for Conservation of Tropical Ungulates. Photo by Gabriella Flacke.

Figure 11 in Morphology and phylogenetic relationships of the earliest known hippopotamids (Cetartiodactyla, Hippopotamidae, Kenyapotaminae)

Figure 11. Biogeographical background and evolutionary scenarios for the emergence of Kenyapotamus and Hippopotaminae. Abbreviations: 1 and 2, see text for comments; archaic bothrio., archaic bothriodontines (excluding Brachyodus); Pleis., Pleistocene; Siva. – Afro., group of advanced bothriodontines including the African Afromeryx and the Afro-Asian Sivameryx. Maps indicate known distribution areas of taxa at approximate regional scale. Distributions for: Libycosaurus from Lihoreau et al. (2006) and Boisserie & Lihoreau (2006); Merycopotamus from Lihoreau et al. (2007); Sivameryx– Afromeryx from Lihoreau (2003); Elomeryx from Ducrocq & Lihoreau (2006); archaic bothriodontines from Ducrocq (1997).

Figure 9 in Morphology and phylogenetic relationships of the earliest known hippopotamids (Cetartiodactyla, Hippopotamidae, Kenyapotaminae)

Figure 9. Strict consensus tree of the 14 most parsimonious phylogenetic trees (289 steps; consistency index = 0.474; retention index = 0.724) obtained by cladistic analysis (heuristic search) of the complete matrix (24 taxa and 87 characters; see Appendices and Supporting Information). Numbers at nodes are: Bremer index/ bootstrap index (1000 replicates,> 50% occurrences). CB, crown bothriodontines; Hid, Hippopotamidae; Hoid, Hippopotamoidea; Hin, Hippopotaminae; K, Kenyapotaminae; MMK, middle Miocene kenyapotamines; LMK, late Miocene kenyapotamines.

Figure 6 in Morphology and phylogenetic relationships of the earliest known hippopotamids (Cetartiodactyla, Hippopotamidae, Kenyapotaminae)

Figure 6. Lower premolars of Kenyapotaminae. A, Kenyapotamus coryndonae, KNM-BN 1483/1487, right P2 (left, occlusal view; right, lingual view). B, K. coryndonae, KNM-BN 1490, right P2 or P3 (left, occlusal view; right, lingual view). C, K. coryndonae, KNM-NA 194, right lower premolar, most probably P4 (left, occlusal view; right, labial view). D, K. coryndonae, KNM-NA 246, right P4 (left, occlusal view; right, lingual view). Localities: BN, Ngeringerowa; NA, Nakali. Scale bars = 1 cm.

Figure 8 in Morphology and phylogenetic relationships of the earliest known hippopotamids (Cetartiodactyla, Hippopotamidae, Kenyapotaminae)

Figure 8. Metapodials and astragalus of Kenyapotaminae. A, Kenyapotamus cf. coryndonae, KNM-BN 1127, right astragalus (top left, external view; bottom left, internal view; top right, dorsal view; bottom right, volar view). B, K. cf. coryndonae, KNM-BN 1622, distal extremity of metapodial (top, dorsal view; bottom, distal view). C, K. cf. coryndonae, KNM-BN 1621, metapodial missing proximal extremity (top left, volar view; top right, dorsal view; bottom right, distal view). Localities: BN, Ngeringerowa. Scale bars = 1 cm.

Figure 4 in Morphology and phylogenetic relationships of the earliest known hippopotamids (Cetartiodactyla, Hippopotamidae, Kenyapotaminae)

Figure 4. Upper premolars of Kenyapotaminae. A, Kenyapotamus coryndonae, KNM-BN 1717, right P1 (left, mesial view; right, lingual view). B, Kenyapotamus ternani, KNM-FT 17089, right P2 (left, labial view; middle, lingual view; right, occlusal view). C, K. coryndonae, KNM-BN 1715, left P3 (top left, labial view; top right, lingual view; bottom left, occlusal view). D, K. coryndonae, KNM-BN 1802, left P4 (occlusal view). E, K. coryndonae, KNM-BN 1493, left P4 (left, lingual view; middle, mesial view; right, occlusal view). Localities: BN, Ngeringerowa; FT, Fort Ternan. Scale bars = 1 cm.