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Fig. 6 in Unravelling the foraging behavior of the southern stingray, Hypanus americanus (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae) in a Southwestern Atlantic MPA

Fig. 6. Illustrations of species-typical patterns of foraging behavior performed by Hypanus americanus in the FNA in phase 5 entitled as final phase. The sub-phases are named as (a) active take-off; (b) drift take-off; (c) rest; (d) bury. The arrow indicates the direction of the movement. The figures were drawn using original still photographs.

Fig. 3 in Unravelling the foraging behavior of the southern stingray, Hypanus americanus (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae) in a Southwestern Atlantic MPA

Fig. 3. Illustrations of species-typical patterns of foraging behavior performed by Hypanus americanus in the FNA in phase 2 entitled as settled upon the bottom. The sub-phases are named as (a) smooth-landing (two leftmost drawings); (b) roughlanding (two rightmost drawings). The arrow indicates the direction and the intensity of the movement. Thicker arrow means a more intense and/or abrupt and/or rapid movement. The figures were drawn using original still photographs.

Fig. 4 in Unravelling the foraging behavior of the southern stingray, Hypanus americanus (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae) in a Southwestern Atlantic MPA

Fig. 4. Illustrations of species-typical patterns of foraging behavior performed by Hypanus americanus in the FNA in phase 3 entitled as secondary search (on the bottom). The sub-phases are named as (a) reverse on the bottom; (b) rotation on the bottom; (c) short forward displacement; (d) hit the bottom; (e) digging; (f) jetting water; (g) passive inspection; (h) active inspection. The arrow indicates the direction of the movement. The figures were drawn using original still photographs.

Fig. 1 in Unravelling the foraging behavior of the southern stingray, Hypanus americanus (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae) in a Southwestern Atlantic MPA

Fig. 1. Map of the study sites in the Fernando de Noronha Arquipelago (FNA). The darker lines indicate the 20m and 50m isobaths. Inside the thinner line, there is the Marine Protected Area (MPA), while outside it, there is the Environmental Protection Area (EPA) for sustainable use. Both areas comprehend the land and insular shelf up to 50m isobaths. Circles indicate the sampling locations where focal-animal, ad libitum and intensive search methods were used; triangles indicate the sampling locations where only the intensive search method was used (see Material and Methods).

opencc-zeroDec 2019View details →

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Description of the microbiota in epidermal mucus and skin of sharks (Ginglymostoma cirratum and Negaprion brevirostris) and one stingray (Hypanus americanus)

Skin mucus in fish is the first barrier between the organism and the environment but the role of skin mucus in protecting fish against pathogens is not well understood. During copulation in sharks, the male bites the female generating wounds, which are then highly likely to become infected by opportunistic bacteria from the water or from the male shark's mouth. Describing the microbial component of epithelial mucus may allow future understanding of this first line of defense in sharks. In this study, we analyzed mucus and skin samples obtained from 19 individuals of two shark species and a stingray: the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum), the lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris) and the southern stingray (Hypanus americanus). Total DNA was extracted from all samples, and the bacterial 16S rRNA gene (region V3-V4) was amplified and sequenced on the Ion Torrent Platform. Bacterial diversity (order) was higher in skin and mucus than in water. Order composition was more similar between the two shark species. Alpha-diversities (Shannon and Simpson) for OTUs (clusters of sequences defined by a 97% identity threshold for the16S rRNA gene) were high and there were non-significant differences between elasmobranch species or types of samples. We found orders of potentially pathogenic bacteria in water samples collected from the area where the animals were found, such as Pasteurellales (i.e. genus Pasteurella spp. and Haemophilus spp.) and Oceanospirillales (i.e. genus Halomonas spp.) but these were not found in the skin or mucus samples from any species. Some bacterial orders, such as Flavobacteriales, Vibrionales (i.e. genus Pseudoalteromonas), Lactobacillales and Bacillales were found only in mucus and skin samples. However, in a co-occurrence analyses, no significant relationship was found among these orders (strength less than 0.6, p-value > 0.01) but significant relationships were found among the order Trembayales, Fusobacteriales, and some previously described marine environmental Bacteria and Archaea, including Elusimicrobiales, Thermoproteales, Deinococcales and Desulfarculales. This is the first study focusing on elasmobranch microbial communities. The functional role and the benefits of these bacteria still needs understanding as well as the potential changes to microbial communities as a result of changing environmental conditions.

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Description of the microbiota in epidermal mucus and skin of sharks (Ginglymostoma cirratum and Negaprion brevirostris) and one stingray (Hypanus americanus)

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Fig. 8 in Unravelling the foraging behavior of the southern stingray, Hypanus americanus (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae) in a Southwestern Atlantic MPA

Fig. 8. Person's Correlation between the mean duration of foraging events and the size (disc length) of Hypanus americanus individuals (a) and local depth (b) in the FNA. The interval between dashed lines indicates the confidence interval of the regression line at p = 0.05. N = 37.

Fig. 2 in Unravelling the foraging behavior of the southern stingray, Hypanus americanus (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae) in a Southwestern Atlantic MPA

Fig. 2. Illustrations of species-typical patterns of foraging behavior performed by Hypanus americanus in the FNA in phase 1 entitled as primary search. The sub-phases are named as (a) active-scanning; (b) glide-scanning; (c) turn-back; (d) reverse; (e) rotation. The arrow indicates the direction of the movement and in (e) means the rotation on the dorsal-ventral axis of their body. The figures were drawn using original still photographs.

Fig. 7 in Unravelling the foraging behavior of the southern stingray, Hypanus americanus (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae) in a Southwestern Atlantic MPA

Fig. 7. Duration of median foraging events performed by Hypanus americanus individuals in reef areas and beach regions (a) and in complex (i.e., with gravel, algal turf and calcareous algae) and sandy substrates (b) in the FNA. Gray bars represent first and third quartiles (25-75% of the data).

Fig. 5 in Unravelling the foraging behavior of the southern stingray, Hypanus americanus (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae) in a Southwestern Atlantic MPA

Fig. 5. Illustrations of species-typical patterns of foraging behavior performed by Hypanus americanus in the FNA in phase 4 entitled as suction. The sub-phases are named as (a) spiracular suction; (b) corporeal-spiracular suction. The figures were drawn using original still photographs.