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43 results for “Insect wing”
Insect Wings
<p>Data on insect wing morphology derived from the following sources: </p> <p>Andersen, N., Cheng, L. 2004. The marine insect Halobates (Heteroptera: Gerridae): Biology, adaptations, distribution, and phylogeny. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 42:119–180. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203507810.ch5">https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203507810.ch5</a></p> <p>Ball, E. D. and Hartzell A. 1922. Review of the Desert Leafhoppers of the Orgerini (Rhynchota Fulgoridae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 15(2):137-152. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/aesa/15.2.137">https://doi.org/10.1093/aesa/15.2.137</a></p> <p>Bickel, D. J. 2006. Papallacta (Diptera: Dolichopodidae), a New Stenopterous Genus from the Páramo of Ecuador. Tijdschrift Voor Entomologie 149(2):209–13. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/22119434-900000201">https://doi.org/10.1163/22119434-900000201</a>.</p> <p>Braendle, C., Davis, G., Brisson, J. et al. 2006. Wing dimorphism in aphids. Heredity 97:192-199. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.hdy.6800863">https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.hdy.6800863</a></p> <p>Brothers, D.J., Lelej, A.S. 2017. Phylogeny and higher classification of Mutillidae (Hymenoptera) based on morphological reanalyses. Journal of Hymenoptera Research 60:1–97. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.60.20091">https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.60.20091</a></p> <p>Byers, G.V. 1969. Evolution of Wing Reduction in Crane Flies (diptera: Tipulidae). Evolution 23:346–354. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1969.tb03517">https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1969.tb03517</a></p> <p>Byers, G.W. 1997. Biology of Brachypanorpa (Mecoptera: Panorpodidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 70:313–322. </p> <p>Cambra T, R.A., A, D.Q. 2007. Chilemutilla, a new genus of Mutillidae (Hymenoptera) from Chile, and the description of the first wingless mutillid male from South America. Transactions of the American Entomological Society 133:167–180. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3157/0002-8320(2007)133[167:CANGOM]2.0.CO;2">https://doi.org/10.3157/0002-8320(2007)133[167:CANGOM]2.0.CO;2</a></p> <p>Chen X, Mirab-balou M, Minaei K. 2013. An illustrated key to the genera of Thripinae (Thysanoptera, Thripidae) from Iran. ZooKeys 317: 27-52. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.317.5447">https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.317.5447</a></p> <p>Cheng, L. 1977. The elusive sea bug Hermatobates (Heteroptera). The Pan-Pacific entomologist 53(2):87--97. </p> <p>Davis, D.R., Quintero, D.A., Cambra, R.A. and Aiello, A. 2008. Biology of a new Panamanian bagworm moth (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) with predatory larvae, and eggs individually wrapped in setal cases. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 101(4):689-702. </p> <p>De Jong, H. and Ciliberti, P. 2014. How cold‐adapted flightless flies dispersed over the northern hemisphere: phylogeny and biogeography of the snow fly genus Chionea D alman (D iptera: Limoniidae). Systematic Entomology, 39(3):563-589. </p> <p>Gnezdilov, Vladimir M. 2012. A New Stenopterous Genus of the Tribe Gaetuliini Fennah (Hemiptera, Fulgoroidea, Tropiduchidae) from Southern Africa - Particular Intercontinental Convergence. AFRICAN INVERTEBRATES 53:8. </p> <p>Grimaldi, D. & Engel, M.S. 2005. Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge University Press. Grimaldi, D. and Underwood, B.A., 1986. Megabraula, a new genus for two new species of Braulidae (Diptera), and a discussion of braulid evolution. Systematic entomology, 11(4):427-438. </p> <p>Hackman, W. 1966. On wing reduction and loss of wings in Lepidoptera.Notulae Entomologica 46:1–16. Heppner, J.B., 1991. Brachyptery and aptery in Lepidoptera. Tropical Lepidoptera Research 2:11-40. </p> <p>Hölldobler, B. & Wilson, E. O. 1990. The Ants. Harvard University Press. Hopkins H. 2014. A revision of the genus Arenivaga (Rehn) (Blattodea, Corydiidae), with descriptions of new species and key to the males of the genus. ZooKeys 384:1-256. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.384.6197">https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.384.6197</a></p> <p>Lambdin P. 2008. Scale Insects and Mealybugs (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). In: Capinera J.L. (eds) Encyclopedia of Entomology. Springer, Dordrecht. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_4040">https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_4040</a></p> <p>Lelej, A.S. and Krombein, K.V. 2001. Review of the Oriental mutillid wasps of the subfamily Ticoplinae (Hymenoptera, Mutillidae). Far Eastern Entomologist 99:1-18. </p> <p>Lloyd, J. E. 2002. 17 - Louse Flies, Keds, and Related Flies (Hippoboscoidea). Pages 349-362 in Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Gary Mullen & Lance Durden, eds., Academic Press. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012510451-7/50019-0">https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012510451-7/50019-0</a></p> <p>McCulloch GA, Waters JM. Does wing reduction influence the relationship between altitude and insect body size? A case study using New Zealand__s diverse stonefly fauna. Ecology and Evolution. 2018 Jan;8(2):953-960. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3713">https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3713</a></p> <p>Miller, Kelly B., Cheryl Hayashi, Michael F. Whiting, Gavin J. Svenson, and Janice S. Edgerly. 2012. The Phylogeny and Classification of Embioptera (Insecta). Systematic Entomology 37(3):550–70. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.2012.00628.x">https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.2012.00628.x</a></p> <p>Mound L, Nakahara S, Tsuda DM. 2016. Thysanoptera-Terebrantia of the Hawaiian Islands: an identification manual. ZooKeys 549: 71-126. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.549.6889">https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.549.6889</a></p> <p>Mound, L. & Moritz, G. 2000. Corroboreethrips, a new genus of minute apterous thrips (Insecta : Thysanoptera : Phlaeothripinae) from the bark of Australian Acacia trees. Invertebrate Taxonomy 14:709-716. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/IT00002">https://doi.org/10.1071/IT00002</a></p> <p>Mound, L.A. 2005. THYSANOPTERA: Diversity and Interactions. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 50, 247–269. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.49.061802.123318">https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.49.061802.123318</a></p> <p>Nadel, H. 2008. Agaonidae (Hymenoptera). In: Capinera J.L. (eds) Encyclopedia of Entomology. Springer, Dordrecht. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_104">https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_104</a></p> <p>Nakata, S. & Maa, T.C., 1974. A review of the parasitic earwigs (Dermaptera: Arixeniina; Hemimerina). Pacific Insects 16:307-374. </p> <p>Niitsu, S., Sugawara, H., Hayashi, F. 2017. Evolution of female-specific wingless forms in bagworm moths: Wing reduction in bagworm moths. Evolution & Development 19:9–16. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ede.12213">https://doi.org/10.1111/ede.12213</a></p> <p>O__Brien L.B. 2008. Planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoroidea). In: Capinera J.L. (eds) Encyclopedia of Entomology. Springer, Dordrecht. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_2987">https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_2987</a></p> <p>Oswald, J. D. 1996. A New brachypterous Nusalala species from Costa Rica, with comments on the evolution of flightlessness in brown lacewings (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae). Systematic Entomology 21(4):343–52. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.1996.tb00603.x">https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.1996.tb00603.x</a></p> <p>Peck, S.B. 2006. Distribution and biology of the ectoparasitic beaver beetle Platypsyllus castoris Ritsema in North America (Coleoptera: Leiodidae: Platypsyllinae). Insecta Mundi 20:85–94. Penny, N.D. 1975. Evolution of the Extant Mecoptera. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 48:331–350. </p> <p>Pitkin, L.M. and Sattler, K. 1991. Sattleria: a European genus of brachypterous alpine moths (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Bulletin of the British Museum, Natural History. Entomology 60(2):205-241. </p> <p>Rindge, F. H. 1974. A revision of the moth genus Animomyia (Lepidoptera, Geometridae). American Museum novitates 2554:1-23. </p> <p>Roff, Derek A. 1990. The Evolution of Flightlessness in Insects. Ecological Monographs 60(4):389–421. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1943013">https://doi.org/10.2307/1943013</a></p> <p>Roza, André Silva, & Mermudes, José Ricardo Miras. (2020). A new genus of railroad-worm beetles from the Atlantic Rainforest from Brazil (Coleoptera: Phengodidae, Mastinocerinae). Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia, 60(spe), e202060(s.i.).10. Epub May 18, 2020. <a href="https://doi.org/10.11606/1807-0205/2020.60.special-issue.10">https://doi.org/10.11606/1807-0205/2020.60.special-issue.10</a></p> <p>Schuh, R. T. & Slater, J. A. 1995. The True Bugs of the World (Hemiptera: Heteroptera). Classification and Natural History. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Shovkoon, D.F., 2008. On the rediscovery of Ethmia discrepitella (Rebel, 1901) with remarks on brachyptery in females of Ethmia (Ethmiidae). Nota lepidopterologica 31(2):215–221. </p> <p>Song, H., Béthoux, O., Shin, S. et al. 2020. Phylogenomic analysis sheds light on the evolutionary pathways towards acoustic communication in Orthoptera. Nat Commun 11, 4939. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18739-4">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18739-4</a></p> <p>Vickery, V. R. and Sandoval, C. P. 2001. Descriptions of Three New Species of Timema (Phasmatoptera: Timematodea: Timematidae) and Notes on Three Other Species. Journal of Orthoptera Research 10(1):53-61. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3503674">https://www.jstor.org/stable/3503674 </a></p> <p>Wu C, Liu C-X. 2020. New record of Didymocorypha Wood-Mason (Mantodea, Eremiaphilidae) from China, with description of a new high-altitude wingless mantis species in Asia. ZooKeys 922:51-64. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.922.47987">https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.922.47987</a></p> <p>Yoshizawa, K. and Lienhard, C. 2010. In search of the sister group of the true lice: A systematic review of booklice and their relatives, with an updated checklist of Liposcelididae (Insecta: Psocodea). Arthropod Systematics & Phylogeny, 68(2):181-195.</p>
Figs 17–18 in Morphometry Of Fore Wing Venation For Identification Of Net-Winged Insects Of The Ukrainian Carpathians, With A Focus On Chrysopa (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae)
Figs 17–18. Fore wings of species of Chrysopidae: 17 — fore wing of Chrysopa formosa (Brauer, 1850); 18 — fore wing of Chrysopa perla (Linnaeus, 1758).
Fig. 3 in Morphometry Of Fore Wing Venation For Identification Of Net-Winged Insects Of The Ukrainian Carpathians, With A Focus On Chrysopa (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae)
Fig. 3. Fore wing venation: 3a — Myrmeleontidae (Distoleon Banks, 1810); 3b — Ascalaphidae (Libelloides Schaffer, 1763); 3c — Osmylidae (Osmylus Latreille, 1802); 3d — Chrysopidae (Chrysopa Leach, 1815); 3e — Sisyridae (Sisyra Burmeister, 1839); 3f — Mantispidae (Mantispа Illiger in Kugelann, 1798); 3g — Coniopterigidae (Conwentzia Enderlein 1905); 3h — Hemerobiidae (Hemerobius Linnaeus, 1758); R — radius, Rs — radial sector, Rt — radial triangular, dc — distal cell between R and Rs, Sc — subcostal vein; trz — tiny inserted veins. arranged between the terminal branches of longitudinal veins.
Figs 4–7 in Morphometry Of Fore Wing Venation For Identification Of Net-Winged Insects Of The Ukrainian Carpathians, With A Focus On Chrysopa (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae)
Figs 4–7. Fore wing venation of Chrysopidae: 4 — Chrysotropia Navás, 1911; 5 — base of fore wing: 5a — Italochrysa Principi. 1946, 5b — Nineta Navas, 1912, 5c — Chrysopa Leach in Brewster, 1815, 5d — Peyerimhoffina Lacroix, 1920; 6 — base of fore wing: 6a —Pseudomallada Tsukaguchi, 1995, 6b— Chrysoperla Steinmann, 1964, 6c — Cunctochrysa Hölzel, 1970; 7 — fragment of fore wing of Chrysopa Leach, 1815 with setae fringe; M — median vein, im — intramedian cell, m2 — 2nd median cell, m3 — 3rd median cell, r1 — 1st radial cell, r2 — 2nd radial cell, r-m — radial-median vein, Rs — radial sector.
Figs 15–16 in Morphometry Of Fore Wing Venation For Identification Of Net-Winged Insects Of The Ukrainian Carpathians, With A Focus On Chrysopa (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae)
Figs 15–16. Fore wings of species of Chrysopidae: 15 — fore wing of Chrysopa nigricostata (Brauer, 1850); 16 — fore wing of Chrysopa abbreviata (Curtis, 1834).
Figs 10–11 in Morphometry Of Fore Wing Venation For Identification Of Net-Winged Insects Of The Ukrainian Carpathians, With A Focus On Chrysopa (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae)
Figs 10–11. Fore wings of species of Chrysopidae: 10 — fore wing of Chrysopa dorsalis (Burmeister, 1839); 11 — fore wing of Chrysopa hummeli Tjeder, 1936.
Fig. 2 in Morphometry Of Fore Wing Venation For Identification Of Net-Winged Insects Of The Ukrainian Carpathians, With A Focus On Chrysopa (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae)
Fig. 2. Comparative diagram of the indices of the ratio of structures of the fore wing for the species of the genus Chrysopa from the Ukrainian Carpathians: Chrysopa from the Ukrainian Carpathians.
Figs 8–9 in Morphometry Of Fore Wing Venation For Identification Of Net-Winged Insects Of The Ukrainian Carpathians, With A Focus On Chrysopa (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae)
Figs 8–9. Fore wings of species of Chrysopidae: 8 — fore wing of Chrysopa walkeri (McLachlan, 1893); 9 — fore wing of Chrysopa pallens (Rambur, 1838).
Fig. 1 in Morphometry Of Fore Wing Venation For Identification Of Net-Winged Insects Of The Ukrainian Carpathians, With A Focus On Chrysopa (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae)
Fig. 1. General scheme for wing venation in Chrysopidae (legend on the FIgure): Psm — pseudomedian vein, Psc — pseudocubitus, ini — intramedian cell, G1 — gradiformes internal, GE — gradiformes exstemal, cv — cross veins of costal sector, pt — pterostigma.
Figs 12–14 in Morphometry Of Fore Wing Venation For Identification Of Net-Winged Insects Of The Ukrainian Carpathians, With A Focus On Chrysopa (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae)
Figs 12–14. Fore wings of species of Chrysopidae: 12 — fore wing of Chrysopa viridana (Schneider, 1845); 13— fore wing of Chrysopa hungarica Klapalek, 1899; 14 — fore wing of Chrysopa phyllochroma (Wesmael, 1841).
Figure 3 in An insect wing discovered in the Early Permian Taiyuan Formation (Shanxi Province, China)
Figure 3. Putative stem-Orthoptera from the Taiyuan Formation (SXMG IV 0480): (a) interpretative drawing (see text for alternative interpretation) and (b) photograph (flipped horizontally).
Figure 2 in An insect wing discovered in the Early Permian Taiyuan Formation (Shanxi Province, China)
Figure 2. The stratigraphic column of the Taiyuan Formation, near Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, China. The arrow indicates the fossil horizon.
Fig. 2 in Paoliida, a Putative Stem-Group of Winged Insects: Morphology of New Taxa from the Upper Carboniferous of Poland
Fig. 2. Line drawings of paoliid insect Zdenekia silesiensis sp. nov., Załęże beds, Mudstone series (Langsettian, Upper Carboniferous), SosnowiecKlimontów, Upper Silesian Coal Basin, Poland (after Kukalová−Peck 1991). A. Fore wing holotype specimen MP ISEA I−F/MP/1488/2ab/08. B. Fore wing paratype specimen MP ISEA I−F/MP/1540/25/09. C. Hind wing specimen MP ISEA I−F/MP/1488/3/08.Vein symbols are abbreviated as follows: ScP, Subcosta posterior; RA/RP, Radius anterior/posterior; MP, Media posterior; CuA/CuP, Cubitus anterior/posterior; AA/AP, Analis anterior/posterior.
Fig. 1. A in Paoliida, a Putative Stem-Group of Winged Insects: Morphology of New Taxa from the Upper Carboniferous of Poland
Fig. 1. A. Geographical situation and geological map of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin with position of insect localities: Horní Suchá (Czech Republic) and Sosnowiec (Poland) indicated by white asterisks (modified after Jureczka et al. 1995). B. Lithostratigraphic division of Pennsylvanian strata of Czech and Polish parts of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin after Dopita et al. (1997) with corresponding stratigraphical levels of both localities indicated by white asterisks. Abbreviations: Bolsov., Bolsovian; Duckman., Duckmantian.
Out from under the wing: reconceptualizing the insect wing gene regulatory network as a versatile, general module for body-wall lobes in arthropods
<p>Body plan evolution often occurs through the differentiation of serially homologous body parts, particularly in the evolution of arthropod body plans. Recently, homeotic transformations resulting from experimental manipulation of gene expression have been interpreted as evidence that portions of dorsal and lateral arthropod body-wall are serially homologous to wings. These results, along with comparative data on the expression and function of genes in the wing regulatory network, provided a new perspective on an old question in insect evolution—how did the insect wing, evolve? A proposed ancestral role for the wing regulatory network in patterning body-wall margins motivated a broader comparison of gene function in wings and body-wall. We investigated the roles of a suite of ten wing- and body-wall related genes in a hemimetabolous insect, Oncopeltus fasciatus. Our results indicate that genes involved in wing development in O. fasciatus play similar roles in the development of adult body-wall flattened cuticular evaginations. We found extensive functional similarity between the development of wings and other bilayered evaginations of the body wall. Overall, our results support the existence of a versatile development module for building bilayered cuticular epithelial structures, which may have played a central role in the evolution of wings.</p>
Figure 1 in An insect wing discovered in the Early Permian Taiyuan Formation (Shanxi Province, China)
Figure 1. Locality of the insect fossil near Yangquan City, Shanxi Province, China.
Data from: Thermal plasticity in protective wing pigmentation is modulated by genotype and food availability in an insect model of seasonal polyphenism
<p>Phenotypic variation in natural populations results from complex interactions between organisms and their changing environments. The environment shapes both phenotypic frequencies (during adaptation) and organismal phenotypes (through phenotypic plasticity). Developmental plasticity, in particular, refers to the phenomenon whereby an organism's phenotype depends on the environmental conditions during development. It can match phenotype to ecological conditions and help organisms to cope with environmental heterogeneity, including differences between alternating seasons. Experimental studies of developmental plasticity often focus on the impact of individual environmental cues and do not take explicit account of genetic variation. In contrast, natural environments are complex, comprising multiple variables with combined effects that are poorly understood and may vary among genotypes. We investigated the effects of multifactorial environments on the development of the seasonally plastic eyespots of <em>Bicyclus anynana</em> butterflies. Eyespot size depends on developmental temperature and is involved in alternative seasonal strategies for predator avoidance. In nature, both temperature and food availability undergo seasonal fluctuations. However, our understanding of how thermal plasticity in eyespot size varies in response to food availability and across genotypes remains limited. To address this, we investigated the combined effects of temperature (T; two levels: 20°C and 27°C) and food availability (N; two levels: control and limited) during development. We examined their impact on wing and eyespot size in adult males and females from multiple genotypes (G; 28 families). We found evidence of thermal and nutritional plasticity and temperature-by-nutrition interactions (significant TxN) on the size of eyespots in both sexes. Food limitation resulted in relatively smaller eyespots and tempered the effects of temperature. Additionally, we found differences among families for thermal plasticity (significant GxT effects), but not for nutritional plasticity (non-significant GxN effects) nor for the combined effects of temperature and food limitation (non-significant GxTxN effects). Our results reveal the context dependence of thermal plasticity, with the slope of thermal reaction norms varying across genotypes and across nutritional environments. We discuss these results in light of the ecological significance of pigmentation and the value of considering thermal plasticity in studies of the biological impact of climate change.</p>
A polar insect's tale: observations on the life cycle of Parochlus steinenii, the only winged midge native to Antarctica
<p><span>Antarctica and the sub-Antarctic islands are considered natural laboratories to study and understand the influence of environmental variable and patterns of variation therein on the biota, including the influences of climate change. The Antarctic terrestrial fauna consists only of small invertebrates, with just two native species of holometabolous insects, Parochlus steinenii and Belgica antarctica, and two established non-native species, Eretmoptera murphyi and Trichocera maculipennis. Studies of the life history, phenology and stress tolerances of insects are critical to better understand adaptations to natural environmental stress and the ecological consequences of recent and ongoing climate change. In this context, we characterized the habitat preferences, life cycle and phenology of P. steinenii, the winged Antarctic midge, in a lake on King George Island, South Shetland Islands, maritime Antarctic. Based on the data obtained, we hypothesize that P. steinenii has a multi-year life cycle that may span as much as four years. The species is very restricted in terms of its preferred microhabitat distribution, being highly abundant only at shallow depths close to the edge of the lakes in which it is found. A combination of further field and laboratory studies are now required to assess how the length of P. steinenii life cycle is influenced by the scale of temperature variation typically experienced in its natural habitat, and as predicted under different climate change scenarios, as well investigating the ability and timing of larval movement to take advantage of the conditions of specific microhabitats at different times of year.</span></p>
Supplementary data for "Flat does not mean 2D: Using X-ray microtomography to study insect wings in 3D"
<p>Supplementary data for "Flat does not mean 2D: Using X-ray microtomography to study insect wings in 3D". Contain all 3D CT-scans used for figures and analyses</p>
Threshold-dependent gene regulation and partial assortative mating determine wing dimorphism of an Insect
<p><span>Wing dimorphism is a fantastic</span> <span>life-historical trait of insects which indicates the developmental trend of populations, going as migrants or staying as residents. The alternative wing morph enhances adaptability of insects to changing environments. However, the underlying mechanism for maintaining wing dimorphism remains vague. The brown planthoppers <em>Nilaparvata lugens</em>, a serious pest of rice, are either short-winged or long-winged. The shift between two wing morphs is determined by two insulin receptors. So, this pest is a better model organism to explore the mechanism of wing dimorphism. Here, the short- and long-winged strains of <em>N. lugens</em> were selected. Rates of a selected wing morph were linearly increased in populations, and the selection response of the short-winged morph was stronger than that of the long-winged. Selection enhanced the migratory or resident propensity. Directional selection for the long-winged morph resulted in longer and lighter forewings, while selection for the short-winged morph generated shorter and thicker wings and higher fecundity. Relative expression levels of wing development genes <em>InR1, InR2</em>, and <em>FOXO</em> were positively correlated with the short-winged rate in the short-winged strain, while they were negatively correlated with the long-winged rate in the long-winged strain at specific stages. The change rate of expression levels was approximately two times as high as that of the wing morph rates in populations, indicating a high threshold-dependent gene expressed regulation of a wing morph. A partial assortative mating behavior occurred between the nearly pure-bred lineages of short- and long-winged strains. The short-winged males preferred to mate with short-winged females while the long-winged males mated with the short- and long-winged females equally. The threshold-dependent mode is flexible to adjust the wing morph according to environmental conditions and the partial assortative mating promotes the genetic exchange between two wing morphs which drive the maintenance of wing dimorphism.</span></p>
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