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FIG. A3A, B in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. A3A, B. — Six most parsimonious trees (A-F) obtained from the parsimony phylogenetic analysis under equal weights,with the Dasyuromorphia node constrained.

FIG. 18 in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. 18. — Reconstruction of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 stalking some rodents ("Neoreomys" huilensis Fields, 1957) in the La Venta area during Middle Miocene. Artist: Juan Giraldo.

FIG. 7 in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. 7. — Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997; VPPLT 1612, right side of the skull: A, lateral view; B, dorsolateral view; C, lineal draw in dorsolateral view. Abbreviations: Al, alisphenoid; dmm, depression for the masseter muscle; Eo, exoccipital; fdv, foramen for diploic vein; Fr, frontal; Ip, interparietal; Ju, jugal; La, lacrimal; Mx, maxilla; Na, nasal; oc, occipital condyle; Pa, parietal; Pal, palatine; pgp, postglenoid process; pop, postorbital process; prgp, preglenoid process of jugal; Px, premaxilla; smf, suprameatal foramen; Sq, squamosal; scr, sagittal crest. Scale bar: 20 mm.

FIG. 6 in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. 6. — Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997; VPPLT 1612, left side of the skull: A, lateral view; B, dorsolateral view; C, lineal draw in dorsolateral view. Abbreviations: Al, alisphenoid; Eo, exoccipital; Fr, frontal; fro, foramen rotundum; iof, infraorbital foramen; Ip, interparietal; Ju, jugal; La, lacrimal; Mx, maxilla; Na, nasal; oc, occipital condyle; Os, orbitosphenoid; Pa, parietal; Pal, palatine; pgp, postglenoid process; pop, postorbital process; prgp, preglenoid process of jugal; sof, sphenorbital fissure; smf, suprameatal foramen; Sq, squamosal; scr, sagittal crest; tl, temporal line. Scale bar: 20 mm.

FIG. A4 in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. A4. — Result of parsimony phylogenetic analysis under implied weights, with concavity constant k = 3, showing the single recovered most parsimonious tree. Numbers represent bootstrap values. Support values not given for Dasyuromorphia, as this node was constrained a priori (see text).

FIG. A5 in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. A5. — Result of parsimony phylogenetic analysis under implied weights, with concavity constant k = 12, showing the single recovered most parsimonious tree. Numbers represent bootstrap values. Support values not given for Dasyuromorphia, as this node was constrained a priori (see text).

FIG. A2 in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. A2. — Strict consensus of six most parsimonious trees obtained from the parsimony phylogenetic analysis under equal weights, including Thylacinus cynocephalus (Harris, 1808) and constraining the Dasyuromorphian clade. Numbers indicate the number of nodes.For additional information,see Synapomorphies below.

FIG. 12 in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. 12. — Skulls of three species of Thylacosmilidae: A, Thylacosmilus atrox Riggs, 1933; B, Patagosmilus goini Forasiepi & Carlini, 2010; C, Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997. Scale bar: 20 mm.

FIG. A1 in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. A1. — Consensus tree resulted from the alternative phylogenetic analysis under equal weights, excluding Thylacinus cynocephalus (Harris, 1808), made to test differences in topology.

FIG. 9 in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. 9. — Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997; VPPLT 1612, left dentary in lingual (A), labial (B) and occlusal (C) views; and right dentary in labial view (D). Abbreviations: acoc, anterior coronoid crest; an, angular process; con, mandibular condyle; cor, coronoid process; maf, masseteric fossa; manf, mandibular foramen; mc, masseteric crest (= inferior coronoid crest); mf, mental foramen; syf, symphyseal flange. Scale bars: 20 mm.

FIG. A3E, F in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. A3E, F. — Six most parsimonious trees (A-F) obtained from the parsimony phylogenetic analysis under equal weights, with the Dasyuromorphia node constrained.

FIG. 2 in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. 2. — Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997; IGM 184247 (holotype). Right mandibular ramus in lateral (A) and occlusal (B) views; C, left symphyseal flange fragment in medial and lateral views; D, left cranial fragment (postorbital portion; arrow indicates anterior direction); E, left mandibular ramus fragment with m2-3 in labial and lingual views; G, left m2-3 in occlusal view. Abbreviations: Fr, frontal; La, lacrimal; Na, nasal. Scale bars: 5 mm (vertical); 20 mm (horizontal).

FIG. A3C, D in A sabre-tooth predator from the Neotropics: Cranial morphology of Anachlysictis gracilis Goin, 1997 (Metatheria, Thylacosmilidae), based on new specimens from La Venta (Middle Miocene, Colombia)

FIG. A3C, D. — Six most parsimonious trees (A-F) obtained from the parsimony phylogenetic analysis under equal weights, with the Dasyuromorphia node constrained.

FIG. 39 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 39. Sipalocyon gracilis AMNH VP-9254 (Hathliacynidae, Sparassodonta), adult caudal cranium, selected coronal segments in rostrocaudal order (data source, table 2). As in extant marsupials, large carotid canals probably carried internal carotid vein as well as artery. However, channels for transverse canal veins resembling those of most marsupials or Prothylacynus (fig. 40A) are not in evidence. Small channels on lip of extracranial carotid foramen, thought by Archer (1976) to be possible transverse foramina, are for components of nerve of pterygoid canal and another structure that cannot be securely identified (features 1, 2; cf. fig. 38). Right and left internal carotid veins could have interacted with each other and with caudal portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus via features 3 and 4 (cf. fig. 38D). Key: AS, alisphenoid; BS, basisphenoid; cc, carotid canal; ctbs, caudal portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; encf, endocranial carotid foramen; encg, endocranial carotid groove; excf, exocranial carotid foramen; fo, foramen ovale; hpf, hypophyseal fossa; mdnc, canal for mandibular nerve (to foramen ovale); mxns, sulcus for maxillary nerve; onvs, sulcus for ophthalmic neurovascular bundle; rtbs, rostral portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; SQ, squamosal; 1, pterygoid canal; 2, sulcus of unknown function; 3, small canaliculus joining right and left carotid canals (presumably venous, for anastomosis between internal carotid veins); 4, small connector between 3 and rest of caudal transverse basisphenoid sinus; possibly retained portion of notochord canal.

FIG. 32. A and B, Perameles nasuta AMNH M-160199 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 32. A and B, Perameles nasuta AMNH M-160199 (Peramelidae, Peramelemorphia), adult caudal cranium in (respectively) ventral and right oblique lateral views. C and D, Perameles nasuta AMNH M-154403, damaged adult caudal cranium, showing (respectively) endocranial floor and closeup of left carotid groove. In A

FIG. 36. A and B, Dipodomys deserti AMNH M-182081 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 36. A and B, Dipodomys deserti AMNH M-182081 (Dipodomyinae, Heteromyidae, Rodentia), adult caudal cranium in ventral and endocranial aspects; C, Galago demidovii AMNH M-89605 (Galagidae, Primates), adult caudal cranium in ventral aspect. Despite highly derived aspect of kangaroo rat skull, mesocranial position of foramina for sphenopterygoid veins suggests that latter may arise from emissaria comparable to those giving rise to transverse canal veins in marsupials. In Galago and other lorisiforms, in addition to ascending pharyngeal artery, rostral carotid foramen transmits large vein with same relations as internal carotid vein. Key: bcf, basicapsular fenestra (includes piriform fenestra and carotid foramen; see Brylski, 1990); BO, basioccipital; BS, basisphenoid; ccf, caudal carotid foramen; eam, external acoustic meatus; EC, ectotympanic; fm, foramen magnum; fo, foramen ovale; hf, hypoglossal foramen; hpf, hypophyseal fossa; jf, jugular foramen; pglf, postglenoid foramen; pgli, postglenoid incisure; PS, presphenoid; PT, pterygoid; rcf, rostral carotid foramen; spf, sphenopterygoid foramen (=?transverse canal foramen); stf, stapedial foramen (according to Howell, 1932; Brylski, 1990); tgf, fossa for trigeminal ganglion.

FIG. 28. Sarcophilus laniarius AMNH M-65673 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 28. Sarcophilus laniarius AMNH M-65673 (Dasyuridae, Dasyuromorphia), adult caudal cranium in A, ventral, B, oblique lateral, and C, oblique endocranial aspects; and D, S. harrisii, venogram (after Shah and Nicol, 1989: fig. 2). (Although catalogued as S. laniarius, usually regarded as an extinct taxon, AMNH M-65673 came to the AMNH in 1913 from New York Zoological Society, and is therefore more likely S. harrisii.) Note asymmetry within endocranial carotid grooves—caudal branch present on left side only. Plexiform nature of vessels identified in original venogram as internal jugular veins, as well as their apparent medial convergence, suggest that they may instead represent ventral petrosal sinus and its extracranial continuation, seen in anastomotic union with internal vertebral venous plexus. True internal jugular veins are probably situated more laterally (asterisk). Key: A–C: AS, alisphenoid; astp, tympanic process of alisphenoid; ats, sulcus for auditory tube; bjs, basijugular sulcus; BO, basioccipital; BS, basisphenoid; cbf, caudal branch foramen; cchf, caudal condylohypoglossal foramen; eam, external acoustic meatus; EC, ectotympanic; ET, ethmoid; encf, endocranial carotid foramen; encg, endocranial carotid groove; etbs, eminence of transverse basicranial sinus; evpf, foramen for extracranial continuation of ventral petrosal sinus; excf, exocranial carotid foramen; fo, foramen ovale; fr, foramen rotundum; FR, frontal; jf, jugular foramen; onvs, sulcus for ophthalmic neurovascular array; mxns, sulcus for maxillary nerve; pbs, presphenoid-basisphenoid synchondrosis; PE, petrosal;

FIG. 37. A–C, Galago demidovii MPIH 120 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 37. A–C, Galago demidovii MPIH 120 (Galagidae, Primates), near-term fetus; D, Microcebus murinus MPIH 1962/57 (Cheirogaleidae, Primates), fetus; and E, Elephantulus fuscipes MPIH 311/E1 (Macroscelididae, Macroscelidea), fetus. Coronal sections, all to same scale. In A and B (ss. 961, 979, sides rev.), rete mirabile with ascending pharyngeal artery, internal carotid vein, and basicranial venous plexus. In C and D (ss. 1285; 91/2/3), relatively large internal jugular vein, typical of strepsirhines, receives multiply branching basicranial venous plexus. In E (s. 1558), mesocranial vascular arrangements in sengis are quite different from those seen in strepsirhines: vein (asterisk) running across tympanic roof to accompany internal carotid artery into endocranium originates from prootic sinus, therefore not homologous with internal carotid vein. Key: AC, auditory capsule; acc, alicochlear commissure; apa, ascending pharyngeal artery; AS, alisphenoid; BS, basisphenoid; bvp, basicranial venous plexus; C1, atlas vertebra; cat, cartilage of auditory tube; cbca, cerebral carotid artery; cca, common carotid artery; CEN, caudal entotympanic; cptp, caudal tympanic process of petrosal; cs, cavernous sinus; EC, ectotympanic; ecvr, extracranial arterial rete; ejv, external jugular vein; EO, exoccipital; GO, gonial; gpn, greater petrosal nerve; hp, hypophysis; ica (pra), internal carotid artery (promontorial artery); icn, internal carotid nerve; icv, internal carotid vein (= internal carotid venous plexus); ijv, internal jugular vein; MC, meckelian cartilage; mdn, mandibular nerve; PE, petrosal; pglv, postglenoid vein; pr, promontorium; REN, rostral entotympanic; rssa, ramus superior of stapedial artery; STH, stylohyal; stm, stapedius muscle; tg, trigeminal ganglion; tmc, tympanic cavity; tt, tegmen tympani; ttm, tensor tympani muscle; vg, vagus ganglion; vps, ventral petrosal sinus.

FIG. 27. Dasyurus hallucatus TMM M-6921 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG. 27. Dasyurus hallucatus TMM M-6921 (Dasyuridae, Dasyuromorphia), adult caudal cranium, selected coronal segments in rostrocaudal order (data source, table 2). In A–C, rostral transverse basisphenoid sinus inflates endocranial surface of basisphenoid, forms compound junction with rostral branches of transverse canals. In D, caudal branch foramina open into endocranium on rostral margin of carotid grooves (arrows). However, as no definite trackway for this vein can be detected, actual course not certain. Key: AS, alisphenoid; astp, tympanic process of alisphenoid; bcf, basicapsular fenestra; BS, basisphenoid;?cbs, assumed track of caudal branch of transverse canal; cc, carotid canal; ctbs, caudal portion of transverse basisphenoid sinus; encf, endocranial carotid foramen; encg, endocranial carotid groove; etbs, eminence of transverse basisphenoid sinus; hpf, hypophyseal fossa; junc, junction of transverse canals; le, lateral extension of transverse basisphenoid sinus; mxns, sulcus for maxillary nerve; onvs, sulcus for ophthalmic neurovascular array; rbtc, rostral branches of transverse canal; rtbs, rostral portion of trans-

FIG 40. Prothylacynus patagonicus YPM VPPU-15700 in Transverse Canal Foramen And Pericarotid Venous Network In Metatheria And Other Mammals

FIG 40. Prothylacynus patagonicus YPM VPPU-15700 (Borhyaenoidea, Sparassodonta), adult specimen, endocast reconstruction showing osteological features associated with pericarotid venous network and related vasculature (data source, table 2; color key, fig. 4). Views: A, ventral; B, same, with transverse basisphenoid sinus superimposed; C, oblique right lateral; D, closeup of transverse canals, ventral aspect; E, closeup of transverse canals, rostral aspect; F, horizontal section through transverse canals and mesocranium; G, ventral and H, left ventrolateral surfaces of intact caudal cranium. In A–F, features 1–4