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Fig. 4 in The dual impact of Ostreopsis cf. ovata on Mytilus galloprovincialis and Paracentrotus lividus: Toxin accumulation and pathological aspects Abstract

Fig. 4: Health status of sea urchins (avg±SDV, n = 4 animals) exposed to Ostreopsis cf. ovata (strain D483) for five days at different cell densities. Health index 1 corresponds to all four sea urchins alive after five days of exposure, 0 to all sea urchins dead in four days, intermediate values to different degrees of damage such as spine folded, partial and total spine loss and death in five days.

Fig. 6 in The dual impact of Ostreopsis cf. ovata on Mytilus galloprovincialis and Paracentrotus lividus: Toxin accumulation and pathological aspects Abstract

Fig. 6: Sea-urchin health status (avg±SDV, n = 4) after exposure to whole Ostreopsis cf. ovata cultures (strain 00APS0810-S1) or toxins extracted from cultures of the same cell density.

Fig. 2 in The dual impact of Ostreopsis cf. ovata on Mytilus galloprovincialis and Paracentrotus lividus: Toxin accumulation and pathological aspects Abstract

Fig. 2: Feeding of Mytilus galloprovincialis on Ostreopsis cf. ovata in a 72 h experiment. Weight-normalised ingested cells (avg±SDV) at different time intervals. Fresh microalgal cultures (2.17±0.23·103 cells ml-1) were provided every 24 h. Of the 10 animals of each replicate, 7-8 died at the beginning of the second day while the survivors were toxic (Table 1).

Fig. 5 in The dual impact of Ostreopsis cf. ovata on Mytilus galloprovincialis and Paracentrotus lividus: Toxin accumulation and pathological aspects Abstract

Fig. 5: Sea urchin health status (avg±SDV, n = 4) upon exposure to entire or sonicated Ostreopsis cf. ovata cultures (strain D483) of the same initial cell density.

Fig. 3 in The dual impact of Ostreopsis cf. ovata on Mytilus galloprovincialis and Paracentrotus lividus: Toxin accumulation and pathological aspects Abstract

Fig. 3: Feeding of Paracentrotus lividus (avg±SDV, n = 15) on Ostreopsis cf. ovata epiphytic on the red alga Asparagopsis taxiformis in five experiments lasting five days each. Experiment 4b was performed with the same animals as 4a, which were given a second stock of seaweeds after a two- day interval. Macroalgae (55-131 g) were completely eaten in all cases. Four additional experiments at low epiphytic cell density (<3.4·103 cells g-1) are not represented. Asterisks indicate the experiments in which sea urchins were weakly toxic at the mouse bioassay (Supplementary Material, Table S2).

Fig. 1 in The dual impact of Ostreopsis cf. ovata on Mytilus galloprovincialis and Paracentrotus lividus: Toxin accumulation and pathological aspects Abstract

Fig. 1: Feeding of Mytilus galloprovincialis in six 24 h experiments with animals of different sizes exposed to different Ostreopsis cf. ovata cell concentrations. A) Mussel wet weight (WW) and O. cf. ovata cell density at the beginning of each experiment (avg±SDV). B) Weight-normalised ingested cells (avg±SDV). The asterisks indicate experiments in which some or all replicates were toxic to the mouse bioassay (Supplementary Material, Table S1).

FIGURE 12 in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 12. Relative abundance of Paracentrotus lividus spine remains. A, Is Mesas (Pleistocene-Bulk sample). B, Sa Mesa Longa Beach (Recent-Surface collection). C, Sa Mesa Longa Beach (Bulk sample). N = number of counted specimens.

FIGURE 13 in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 13. Biostratinomic signatures (abrasion and encrustation) of spine remains. A, Is Mesas (Pleistocene-Bulk sample). B, Sa Mesa Longa Beach (RecentSurface collection). C, Sa Mesa Longa Beach (RecentBulk sample). N = number of counted specimens

FIGURE 11 in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 11. Distribution of ambulacral and interambulacral plates in the two sediment fractions (> 2 mm and 1-2 mm) investigated herein. N = number of counted specimens.

FIGURE 9 in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 9. Relative abundance of Paracentrotus lividus test remains. A, Is Mesas (Pleistocene-Bulk sample). B, Sa Mesa Longa Beach (Recent-Surface collection). C, Sa Mesa Longa Beach (Bulk sample). N = number of counted specimens.

FIGURE 10 in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 10. Biostratinomic signatures (fragmentation, abrasion and encrustation) of echinoid test remains. A, Is Mesas (Pleistocene-Bulk sample). B, Sa Mesa Longa Beach (Recent-Surface collection). C, Sa Mesa Longa Beach (Recent-Bulk sample). N = number of counted specimens. Numbers (1-11) are explained in Figure 9. Colors: dark grey, light grey and black represent fragmentation, abrasion and encrustation, respectively.

FIGURE 6. A in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 6. A, Panoramic view of Sa Mesa Longa Beach (Central-western Sardinia). B-H, Recent remains of Paracentrotus lividus from Sa Mesa Longa. B, Complete denuded test showing encrustation by serpulids. C, Test fragment made up of several ambulacral and interambulacral plates sutured together, showing inter- and intraplate fragmentation and encrustation by coralline algae and the polychaete Spirorbis. D, Internal view of a large test fragment affected by intraplate fragmentation and encrustation by serpulid worms. E, Two interambulacral plates showing abrasion and encrustation by Spirorbis. F, Single ambulacral plates showing fragmentation (white arrow). G, Epiphysis from the jaw apparatus showing fragmentation and abrasion. H, Madreporite from the apical system affected by fragmentation (white arrow). I, Test fragment of Arbacia lixula showing intraplate fracturing. J, Complete test of Echinocyamus pusillus. B, C, D, I, J Scale bar equals 1 cm. E–H scale bars equal 0.5 cm.

FIGURE 7 in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 7. Scanning electron micrographs of suture faces in recent Paracentrotus lividus. A, Interradial suture between interambulacral plates showing galleried stereom with galleries running in aboral-oral direction. A1, Detail of the galleried stereom and collagen fibers. B, Adradial suture of interambulacral plates showing galleried stereom. B1, Detail of the parallel galleries and collagen fibers. C, Adapical suture of an interambulacral plates showing knob-like trabecular protrusions and cavities. C1, The close-up shows numerous knob-like protrusions some of which are interconnected to one another in twos, threes or more. D, Adoral suture of ambulacral plates; 1) Radial ridge at the boundary between ambulacral plates (running across perradial sutures) and 2) galleried stereom. A, B, C Scale bars equal 100 µm; A1, B1, C1 Scale bars equal 20 µm. D Scale bar equals 1 mm.

FIGURE 8 in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 8. Size-frequency distribution of the rotulae of the Aristotle's lantern both in Pleistocene deposit and recent setting. Each box-plot represents 25 and 75 percent quartile of all values, Q1 and Q3 respectively. Black line inside the box represents the median. Whiskers are drawn from Q1 and Q3 to the largest values less than 1.5 times the Interquartile range (Q1-Q3). N = number of counted specimens.

FIGURE 4. Associated fauna from levels A and B in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 4. Associated fauna from levels A and B of the Is Mesas deposit (Late Pleistocene). A, Patella caerulea. B, Diodora gibberula. C, Cerithium vulgatum. D, Hexaplex trunculus. E, Melarhaphe neritoides. F, Acanthocardia tuberculata. G, Irus irus. H, Arca noae. I, Cardita calyculata. J, Cladocora caespitosa. Scale bars equal 1 cm.

FIGURE 5 in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 5. Scanning electron micrographs of Paracentrotus remains from Is Mesas. A, Details of an ambulacral column affected by abrasion. B, Two ambulacral plates still sutured together. C, Interambulacral plate showing a cavity possibly related to bioerosion. D, Spine fragment showing fine surface details such as the crenulated milled ring and shaft striation. Scale bars equal 1 mm.

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Data from: Ocean warming and acidification alter the behavioural response to flow of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus

Ocean warming (OW) and acidification (OA) are intensively investigated as they pose major threats to marine organism. However, little effort is dedicated to another collateral climate change stressor, the increased frequency and intensity of storm events, here referred to as intensified hydrodynamics. A 2-month experiment was performed to identify how OW and OA (temperature: 21°C; pHT: 7.7, 7.4; control: 17°C-pHT7.9) affect the resistance to hydrodynamics in the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus using an integrative approach that includes physiology, biomechanics and behaviour. Biomechanics was studied under both no-flow condition at the tube foot (TF) scale and flow condition at the individual scale. For the former, TF disk adhesive properties (attachment strength, tenacity) and TF stem mechanical properties (breaking force, extensibility, tensile strength, stiffness, toughness) were evaluated. For the latter, resistance to flow was addressed as the flow velocity at which individuals detached. Under near- and far-future OW and OA, individuals fully balanced their acid-base status, but skeletal growth was halved. TF adhesive properties were not affected by treatments. Compared to the control, mechanical properties were in general improved under pHT7.7 while in the extreme treatment (21°C-pHT7.4) breaking force was diminished. Three behavioural strategies were implemented by sea urchins and acted together to cope with flow: improving TF attachment, streamlining and escaping. Behavioural responses varied according to treatment and flow velocity. For instance, individuals at 21°C-pHT7.4 increased the density of attached TF at slow flows or, controlled TF detachment at fast flow to compensate for weakened TF mechanical properties. They also showed an absence of streamlining favouring an escaping behaviour as they ventured in a riskier faster movement at slow flows. At faster flows, the effects of OW and OA were detrimental causing earlier dislodgment. These plastic behaviours reflect a potential scope for acclimation in the field, where this species already experiences diel temperature and pH fluctuations.

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Data from: Ocean warming and acidification alter the behavioural response to flow of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus

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Data from: Population genomics meet Lagrangian simulations: oceanographic patterns and long larval duration ensure connectivity among Paracentrotus lividus populations in the Adriatic and Ionian seas

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FIGURE 3 in Tracking biases in the regular echinoid fossil record: The case of Paracentrotus lividus in recent and fossil shallow-water, high-energy environments

FIGURE 3. Remains of Paracentrotus lividus from Level A of the Is Mesas deposit (Late Pleistocene). A, 1) Fragment of test consisting of ambulacral and interambulacral plates still sutured together and showing interplate fracturing; 2) Isolated plates; 3) Fragments; 4) Spines. B, Large portion of ambulacral column showing intraplate fragmentation. C, Large portion of interambulacral column. D, Fragmented interambulacral plate. E, Madreporite. F, Hemipyramid. G, Rotula. H, Complete spine. A-C, H Scale bars equal 1 cm. E-G Scale bars equal 0.5 cm.