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Fig. 3 in Water pH and hardness alter ATPases and oxidative stress in the gills and kidney of pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus)

Fig. 3. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) content (nmol TMP mg wet tissue-1) in a. gills and b. kidney of pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus) juveniles under different water hardness and pH at different times. LWH = low water hardness (50 mg CaCO L-1); HWH = high water hardness (120 mg CaCO L-1). Data are presented as the means ± SEM (n = 3 3 9 fish treatment–1). Different uppercase letters indicate statistically differences between pH at the same hardness (P <0.05). Different lowercase letters indicate statistically differences between hardness at the same pH (P <0.05).

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Fig. 2 in Water pH and hardness alter ATPases and oxidative stress in the gills and kidney of pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus)

Fig. 2. Total antioxidant capacity against peroxyl radicals (ACAP) (relative area) in a. gills and b. kidney of pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus) juveniles under different water hardness and pH at different times. LWH = low water hardness (50 mg CaCO L-1); HWH = high water hardness (120 mg CaCO L-1). Data are presented as the means ± SEM (n = 9 fish treatment–1). 3 3 Different uppercase letters indicate statistically differences between pH at the same hardness (P <0.05).

Fig. 3 in Phenotypic plasticity associated to environmental hypoxia in the neotropical serrasalmid Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Characiformes: Serrasalmidae)

Fig. 3. Response curves of three morphological variables of Piaractus mesopotamicus (proportion of increase) respect to dissolved oxygen gradient. Black arrow indicates the DO concentration determined for the inflection point of the reaction norm.

Fig. 1 in Phenotypic plasticity associated to environmental hypoxia in the neotropical serrasalmid Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Characiformes: Serrasalmidae)

Fig. 1. Development and reversion of the three morphological variables exposed to nine hours of hypoxia, followed by three hours of normoxia in Piaractus mesopotamicus. (a) lower lip, (b) maxillary, and (c) opercular valve. Capital letters above box plots indicate groups in multiple comparisons (Tukey's tests) after repeated measures ANOVA.

Fig. 4 in Phenotypic plasticity associated to environmental hypoxia in the neotropical serrasalmid Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Characiformes: Serrasalmidae)

Fig. 4. Response curves of behavioral and respiratory variables of Piaractus mesopotamicus respect to dissolved oxygen gradient. Black arrow indicates inflection point given by the four parameters logistic function. The curve fitted to data points is not shown for horizontal and vertical movements due to the great dispersion.

Fig. 5 in Phenotypic plasticity associated to environmental hypoxia in the neotropical serrasalmid Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Characiformes: Serrasalmidae)

Fig. 5. Comparisons of plasticity among behavioral (a), respiratoy (b) and morphological traits (c) of Piaractus mesopotamicus as measured by the coefficient of variation (CV) across the DO gradient. Capital letters above box plots indicate groups in multiple comparison Tukey's tests after a one way ANOVA. Names of traits as defined in the text.

Fig. 2 in Phenotypic plasticity associated to environmental hypoxia in the neotropical serrasalmid Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Characiformes: Serrasalmidae)

Fig. 2. Photographs showing increases in size of the three morphological traits of Piaractus mesopotamicus analyzed exposed to extreme hypoxia: (a) lower lip, (b) maxillary, and (c) opercular valve. White arrow indicates the area where the expansion of dermal tissue occurred.

Fig. 8 in Reproductive biology of pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Teleostei: Characidae) in the Cuiabá River Basin, Mato Grosso, Brazil

Fig. 8. Relationship between fecundity (number of oocytes) and the TL, TM and GM of P. mesopotamicus in the headwaters (1a, 2a and 3a) and flood area (1b, 2b and 3b), between August 2006 and July 2007.

Fig. 7 in Reproductive biology of pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Teleostei: Characidae) in the Cuiabá River Basin, Mato Grosso, Brazil

Fig. 7. Relative frequency distribution of the ovarian follicle diameter (µm) of P. mesopotamicus in the headwaters (a) and flood area (b) between August 2006 and July 2007.

Fig. 2 in Reproductive biology of pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Teleostei: Characidae) in the Cuiabá River Basin, Mato Grosso, Brazil

Fig. 2. Absolute frequency of young () and adult () individuals in the headwaters - Rosário Oeste, MT (a), and in the flood area - Poconé, MT (b), and frequency distribution by class of TL (cm) of P. mesopotamicus females () and males () in the headwaters (c) and the flood area (d) between August 2006 and July 2007.

Fig. 4 in Reproductive biology of pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Teleostei: Characidae) in the Cuiabá River Basin, Mato Grosso, Brazil

Fig. 4. Monthly variation of the gonadosomatic index (GSI) of P. mesopotamicus females and males in the headwaters (a,b) and the flood area (c,d), respectively, between August 2006 and July 2007.

Fig. 6 in Reproductive biology of pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Teleostei: Characidae) in the Cuiabá River Basin, Mato Grosso, Brazil

Fig. 6. Variation in the stomachsomatic index (IS) of P. mesopotamicus females and males (a, b) and hepatosomatic index (IH) of females and males(c, d), respectively, according to the stages of gonadal maturation between August 2006 and July 2007.

Fig. 1 in Reproductive biology of pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Teleostei: Characidae) in the Cuiabá River Basin, Mato Grosso, Brazil

Fig. 1. Geographic location of the sites sampled in the Cuiabá River basin, Mato Grosso State, Brazil.

Fig. 3 in Reproductive biology of pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Teleostei: Characidae) in the Cuiabá River Basin, Mato Grosso, Brazil

Fig. 3. Relative frequency of P. mesopotamicus females in the headwaters - Rosário Oeste, MT (a) and in the flood area - Poconé, MT (b) according to the stages of gonadal maturation (MG; MA; SP and RE) between August 2006 and July 2007.

Fig. 2. Piaractus mesopotamicus spermatozoa. A in Spermiogenesis and spermatozoa ultrastructure in the Serrasalminae (Ostariophysi: Characiformes) with further evidence on the relationships of the piranhas and pacus

Fig. 2. Piaractus mesopotamicus spermatozoa. A - Longitudinal section of a spermatozoon. A/Inset - Cross section of the midpiece at the cytoplasmic sleeve region. B and C - Longitudinal sections of the nucleus at the nuclear fossa region. D - Cross sections of the nucleus at the nuclear fossa region. E and F - Cross sections in different levels of the midpiece. G and H - Longitudinal and cross sections of the flagellum. Scale bars, A = 0.45 µm; A/inset = 0,15 µm; B and C = 0.4 µm; D = 0.35 µm; E = 0.3 µm; F = 0.25 µm; G = 0.3 µm; H = 0.15 µm. A: axoneme; C: centriole; D: distal centriole; F: flagellum; M: mitochondria; N: nucleus; P: proximal centriole; Asterisk: fins; Arrow: electron dense material; Arrowhead: cytoplasmic canal; Double arrow: nuclear fossa; Star: cytoplasmic sleeve.

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Fig. 1. Glutathione-S in Water pH and hardness alter ATPases and oxidative stress in the gills and kidney of pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus)

Fig. 1. Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity (nmol CNDB-GSH min-1 mg wet tissue-1) in a. gills and b. kidney of pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus) juveniles under different water hardness and pH at different times. LWH = low water hardness (50 mg CaCO L-1); HWH = high water hardness (120 mg CaCO L-1). Data are presented as the means ± SEM (n = 9 fish 3 3 treatment–1). Different uppercase letters indicate statistically significant differences between pH at the same hardness (P <0.05). Different lowercase letters indicate statistically differences between hardness at the same pH (P <0.05).

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Fig. 5 in Reproductive biology of pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Teleostei: Characidae) in the Cuiabá River Basin, Mato Grosso, Brazil

Fig. 5. Relative frequency of the stage of gonadal maturation (MA) by collection period for P. mesopotamicus females () and males () with the monthly variations in rainfall () and water level () in the headwaters (a, b) and the flood area (c, d), respectively, between August 2006 and July 2007.