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Fig. 3 in New Eocene South American native ungulates from the Quebrada de los Colorados Formation at Los Cardones National Park, Argentina

Fig. 3. New fossil specimens of Typotheria and Toxodontia from the Quebrada de Los Colorados Formation exposed at Quebrada Grande locality, Los Cardones National Park (Salta Province), Casamayoran SALMA. A, B. Colbertiasp. A. IBIGEO-P 58a, left maxillary fragment with M2–M3 in occlusal view. B. IBIGEO-P 58b, left maxillary fragment with P4–M3 in occlusal view. C–E. Pampahippus secundus Deraco and García-López, 2016. C. IBIGEO-P 62, right trigonid and incomplete talonid of a lower right molar in occlusal view. D. IBIGEO-P 63, fragmented left p3 or p4 in occlusal view. E. IBIGEO-P 64, left m1? in occlusal (E1), labial (E2), and lingual (E3) views. Photographs (A1–E1, E3, E4), explanatory drawings (A2–E2). Dashed area indicates broken or missing dental areas.

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Fig. 1 in New Eocene South American native ungulates from the Quebrada de los Colorados Formation at Los Cardones National Park, Argentina

Fig. 1. New fossil materials of Litopterna, Astrapotheria, and Notostylopidae from the Quebrada de Los Colorados Formation exposed at Quebrada Grande locality, Los Cardones National Park (Salta Province), Casamayoran SALMA, Eocene. A. cf. Ernestokokenia sp. (IBIGEO-P 65), fragmented left upper cheek tooth in occlusal view. B. Astrapotheria indet. (IBIGEO-P 66), left maxillary fragment with three broken molariforms in lingual (B1) and occlusal (B3) views, and detail showing Hunter-Schreger bands (B4); dashed area in B2 indicates broken or missing dental areas. C. Homalostylops sp. (IBIGEO-P 57b), right m2? in occlusal (C1), lingual (C3), and labial (C4) views. D.?Homalostylops sp. (IBIGEO-P 57a), left m1? in occlusal view. Photographs (A1, B1, B3, B4, C1, C3, C4, D1), explanatory drawings (A2, B2, C2, D2).

Fig. 7 in Pleistocene South American native ungulates (Notoungulata and Litopterna) of the historical Roth collections in Switzerland, from the Pampean Region of Argentina

Fig. 7 Cranium of Ma. patachonica (PIMUZ A/V 5700) in dorsal A and ventral B views. The cranium (PIMUZ A/V 5700) only preserves its posterior portion and basicranium, and was previously subjected to a poor restoration with plaster which covers some of the cranial structures

Fig. 6 in Pleistocene South American native ungulates (Notoungulata and Litopterna) of the historical Roth collections in Switzerland, from the Pampean Region of Argentina

Fig. 6 Limb bones of Toxodon cf. T. platensis from the Roth collections in Zurich and Geneva. Right femur (PIMUZ A/V 4216) in A anterior view, and B posterior view. Partial left humerus (MHNG GEPI V3665) in C anterior view, and D posterior view. Left ulna (PIMUZ A/V 4290) in E lateral view, and F medial view

Fig. 2 in Pleistocene South American native ungulates (Notoungulata and Litopterna) of the historical Roth collections in Switzerland, from the Pampean Region of Argentina

Fig. 2 Cranium of Mesotherium cristatum (PIMUZ A/V 467). A Ventral view. B Detail (left) and drawing (right) of the upper right dentition in occlusal view. C Lateral view. D Dorsal view. Notice the inflated epitympanic theca, the lateral borders of premaxilla diverging rostrally, the mesiodistally elongated I1 and the lateral orientation of the parastyle of M3 (see Fernández-Monescillo et al., 2023b)

Fig. 3 in Pleistocene South American native ungulates (Notoungulata and Litopterna) of the historical Roth collections in Switzerland, from the Pampean Region of Argentina

Fig. 3 Mandible of Mesotherium cristatum. PIMUZ A/V 467 (A–D). A Detail of the left lower dentition in occlusal view. Mandible in B dorsal view, C lateral, and D anterior views. E PIMUZ A/V 4133 in dorsal view. Notice the differences in size and occlusal outlines of i1 and i2, the constricted lateral borders and concave ventral border of the symphysis (see Fernández-Monescillo et al., 2023b)

Fig. 1 in Pleistocene South American native ungulates (Notoungulata and Litopterna) of the historical Roth collections in Switzerland, from the Pampean Region of Argentina

Fig. 1 Geographic provenance of the SANUs specimens of the Roth collection from the Pampean Region, Argentina

Fig. 4 in Pleistocene South American native ungulates (Notoungulata and Litopterna) of the historical Roth collections in Switzerland, from the Pampean Region of Argentina

Fig. 4 Partial skull of Toxodon cf. T. platensis (PIMUZ A/V 5697). A Caudal portion of the cranium in dorsal view. B Occiput in caudal view

Fig. 5 in Pleistocene South American native ungulates (Notoungulata and Litopterna) of the historical Roth collections in Switzerland, from the Pampean Region of Argentina

Fig. 5 Mandible and dentition of Toxodon cf. T. platensis. Mandible (PIMUZ A/V 4163) in A dorsal and B lateral views. C Mandible (PIMUZ A/V 4210) in dorsal view. D Right p1 (left) and m2 (right) in occlusal view (PIMUZ A/V 4163). E Right m2 in occlusal view (PIMUZ A/V 4233). F Left P4 in occlusal view (PIMUZ A/V 4245). G Right P3 in occlusal view (PIMUZ A/V 4199)

Fig. 9 in Pleistocene South American native ungulates (Notoungulata and Litopterna) of the historical Roth collections in Switzerland, from the Pampean Region of Argentina

Fig. 9 Cervical (C2–7) and thoracic (T1–5) vertebrae of Macrauchenia patachonica (PIMUZ A/V 5700). A1–3 Second cervical vertebra (C2) in anterior (A1), left lateral (A2), and ventral (A3) views. B1–3 Third cervical vertebra (C3) in anterior (B1), left lateral (B2; mirrored), and ventral (B3) views. C1–3 Fourth cervical vertebra (C4) in anterior (C1), left lateral (C2), and ventral (C3) views. D1–3 Fifth cervical vertebra (C5) in anterior (D1), left lateral (D2), and ventral (D3) views. E1–3 Sixth cervical vertebra (C6) in anterior (E1), left lateral (E2; mirrored), and ventral (E3) views. F1–3 Seventh cervical vertebra (C7) in anterior (F1), left lateral (F2), and ventral (F3) views. G1–3 First thoracic vertebra (T1) in anterior (G1), left lateral (G2; mirrored), and ventral (G3) views. H1–3 Second thoracic vertebra (T2) in anterior (H1), left lateral (H2), and ventral (H3) views. I1–3. Third thoracic vertebra (T3) in anterior (I1), left lateral (I2), and ventral (I3) views. J1–3. Fourth thoracic vertebra (T4) in anterior (J1), left lateral (J2), and ventral (J3) views. K1–3 Fifth thoracic vertebra (T5) in anterior (K1), left lateral (K2; mirrored), and ventral (K3) views. ant fov anterior costal fovea, dor dorsal, fov tran costal fovea of transverse process, nu can nutrient canal, odon proc odontoid process, postzyg postzygapophysis, pos fov posterior costal fovea, prezyg prezygapophysis, spin proc spinous process, tr for transverse foramen, tr proc transverse process, tub small posterior transverse process tubercle, vent ventral

Fig. 8 in Pleistocene South American native ungulates (Notoungulata and Litopterna) of the historical Roth collections in Switzerland, from the Pampean Region of Argentina

Fig. 8 Upper dentition of Macraucheniidae. A Illustration of a Cramauchenia normalis upper molar (M1) indicating the cusps and cristae. B Illustration of a Theosodon lydekkeri upper molar (M1) indicating the cusps and cristae. C Illustration of a Macrauchenia patachonica upper molar (M1) indicating the cusps and cristae. D–F Relatively unworn left upper molar (M2) of Ma. patachonica (PIMUZ A/V 4119) in occlusal (D), lingual (E), and mesial (F) views. G–I. Worn right upper molar (M2; here mirrored) of Ma. patachonica (PIMUZ A/V 4118) in occlusal (G), lingual (H), and mesial (I) views. J–L. Unworn right deciduous premolar (dP4; here mirrored) of Ma. patachonica (MHNG GEPI V3659) in occlusal (J), buccal (K), and lingual (L) views. M Left maxilla fragment with P4, M1–2 of Ma. patachonica (MHNG GEPI V3659). The illustration of C. normalis' M1 in A of was based on the specimens MLP 83-III-2–1 and MLP 85-V-VII-3-38a. The illustration of T. lydekkeri' s M1 in B was based on the specimens MACN-A 9269–88 and YPM VPPU 015717.The illustration of Ma. patachonica's M1 in C was based on the specimen MACN-PV 11361, among other specimens. In A–C, the labels of controversial structures are in bold and relevant cusps are highlighted in different colours: blue for paraconule, red for protocone, green for metaconule, yellow for hypocone, and dark yellow for hypocone–metaconule. Notice that even though the dP4 (J–L) and the maxilla fragment with P4, M1–2 (M) share the same specimen number (MHNG GEPI V3659), these are from different individuals considering their different and incompatible ontogenetic stage (see the extreme wear in the permanent P4 in M). dif distolingual fossette, ecg ectocingulum, ets entostyle, hy hypocone, hy-mtl hypocone–metaconule, lmef lingual median fossete, maf mesiolabial fossette, me metacone, mef median fossette, mif mesiolingual fossette, ms mesostyle, mt metastyle, mtl metaconule, pa paracone, pcg precingulum, pplc preparaconule crista, pprc preprotocrista, pr protocone, prl paraconule, ps parastyle, pscg postcingulum, psmlc postmetaconule crista, psplc postparaconule crista, psprc postprotocrista, tb trigon basin

Fig. 10 in Pleistocene South American native ungulates (Notoungulata and Litopterna) of the historical Roth collections in Switzerland, from the Pampean Region of Argentina

Fig. 10 Right forelimb of Macrauchenia patachonica (PIMUZ A/V 5700). A–C Scapula in lateral (A), medial (B), and distal (C) views. D–H Humerus in proximal (D), anterior (E), posterior (F), medial (G), and lateral (H) views. I–J Ulna-radius in anterior (I) and posterior (J) views. K Manus (carpals, metacarpals and phalanges) in anterior view. In E the olecranon fossa was restored, so it in PIMUZ is not as deep as it should be. In K the carpals and metacarpals were glued together with the different elements in the right position, but in many cases with a wrong orientation (e.g., pisiform and Mc IV). In addition, the ungual phalanx of the third digit is fragmentary, preserving only its distomedial portion. ae aliform expansion of the radius, bg bicipital groove; ca, capitulum, ce capitular eminence, ch crest of the humerus, ctm crista tuberculi minoris, cu cuneiform, dpc deltopectoral crest, dt deltoid tuberosity, gl glenoid cavity; gt, greater tubercle, h head of the humerus, hp hamatus process, ht humeral trochlea, if fossa infraspinata, it intermediate tubercle, le lateral epicondyle, lt lesser tubercle; lu lunate, ma magnum, mcp medial coronoid process (processus coronoideus medialis), me medial epicondyle, of olecranon fossa, ol olecranon (tuber olecrani), pa anconeal process (processus anconeus), pi pisiform, ra radius, rf radial fossa; rt, radial or bicipital tuberosity (tuberositas radii), sc scaphoid, scn scapular notch, sf fossa supraspinata, shp suprahamatus process, sp styloid process (processus styloideus), sr supracondylar ridge, st supraglenoid tubercle, tr trapezium, trd trapezoid, trl tricipital line, tsp tuber of the scapular spine, ttm tuberosity of the teres major, ul ulna, un unciform

FIG. 37. Tapirus indicus AMNH M-77875 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 37. Tapirus indicus AMNH M-77875, juvenile specimen. Left caudal cranium in oblique A, ventral and B, dorsal views, on facing pages with accompanying stereopairs. In B, endocranial sulcus (1) rostral to carotid incisure resembles that of Equus, which houses cavernous sinus and S-shaped loop of cerebral carotid before latter pierces dura mater (Bradley, 1923, p. 145; see also fig. 5); a second vascular sulcus (2) is situated where

FIG. 40 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 40. Transverse segments comparing vascular routes in mastoid region in Equus caballus AMNH M-204155 (A–E) and Tetramerorhinus lucarius AMNH VP-9245 (F–I) on this and facing page, each series in caudorostral order. Equus series: In A–C, sulcus for arteria diploetica magna/caudal meningeal artery (single asterisk) crosses lateral face of petrosal mastoid in a deep sulcus covered by overlying squamosal (thus forming posttemporal foramen, so-called mastoid foramen of equine anatomies). Artery's trackway is located below, but converges with, sulcus for temporal sinus in separate compartment. In D, at transverse level of external acoustic meatus, sulcus for artery enters short canal (canal Y) that penetrates dorsal surface of petro-

FIG. 35. Rhinoceros unicornis AMNH M-274636, perinatal specimen. A in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 35. Rhinoceros unicornis AMNH M-274636, perinatal specimen. A, general view of caudal cranium, ventral aspect; B, right auditory region, oblique ventrolateral view (stereopair); C, right auditory region, oblique dorsolateral view (skull cap removed, cut edge indicated by hachure); D, aspect as in C, but viewed from slightly different vantage point in order to view entotympanic sulci (stereopair). In ventral views (A, B), note deep grooves on medial and lateral sides of ventral process of entotympanic for accommodation of internal carotid artery (1) and mandibular nerve (2), as well as incisures (3) on alisphenoid's ventral margin (facing basicapsular fenestra). Route of internal carotid is best described as extratympanic, because it grooves rather than tunnels through entotympanic and does not actually touch promontorium. In dorsal views C and D, plane of slice passes through sulci for posttemporal and temporal vasculature, obscuring their relationship. Note entotympanic's dorsal process (4) projecting between squamosal and petrosal, to form a small part of

FIG. 29 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 29. Toxodon sp., selected basicranial features. A, MCL 5192 (adult), caudal cranium in ventral aspect, with undivided rostral (piriform) portion of basicapsular fenestra; B, MACN Pv 16615 (juvenile), right auditory region in ventral aspect, with divided fenestra (C, closeup of area in box in B). Key: 1, vascular sulcus crossing tympanic tympanic floor externally; 2, medial portion of rostral basicapsular fenestra, transmitting internal carotid; 3, vascular sulcus crossing entoglenoid region, presumably conducting tributaries of basicranial venous plexuses; 4, auditory bulla; 5, vascular sulcus between jugular area and hypoglossal canal,?for anastomosis between ventral petrosal sinus and condylar emissary vein; 6, squamoectotympanic suture. Van Kampen (1905: 615) reasonably assumed that feature 1, seen crossing external surface of bulla in A, was a

FIG. 41. Equus asinus AMNH M-204141 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 41. Equus asinus AMNH M-204141, isolated left petrosal in oblique caudodorsal aspect, showing osteological (top) and inferred vascular (bottom) features based on known anatomy of domestic horse. Arteries (red): Sulci for occipital artery and arteria diploetica magna (= caudal meningeal artery of equine anatomies) are continuous; small vessel leaving occipital trunk is meant to suggest muscular branches to m. obliquus capitis cranialis (Ellenberger and Baum, 1908: 672), which leave no trace osteologically. As in figure 40, sulcus for arteria diploetica magna passes dorsally over tympanic roof, then diverges medially along a somewhat narrower trackway that runs through a short tube, canal Y. Trackway reemerges, crosses (asterisk) petrosal's mediodorsal face, then continues into middle cranial fossa to join or become cranioorbital artery. Veins (blue): In equines there is no equivalent of vena diploetica magna closely accompanying arteria diploetica magna. Small vein (dashed blue line) within canal Y is included for purposes of illustration only; no such vein is found in the horse, but its presence (as vena diploetica magna) would be generally expected in other taxa possessing arteria diploetica magna. Although hard to appreciate from this aspect, transverse sinus, temporal sinus, and vein of temporal meatus are individually situated at higher horizontal positions than trackway for arteria diploetica magna (cf. figs. 39A, 40). Temporal sinus enters canal that partly parallels sulcus for arteria diploetica magna, but continues rostrally to leave skull as retroarticular vein via retroarticular incisure (fig. 40).

FIG. 39. Equus caballus AMNH M-204155 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 39. Equus caballus AMNH M-204155, left caudal cranium in A, lateral and B, ventral aspects, with C, ventral stereopair of auditory region. Key: 1, incisura carotidis; 2, incisura ovalis; 3, incisura spinosa. In A, planes corresponding to approximate location of segments illustrated in figure 40A–E are indicated on lower right. In B, white asterisks, impressions for?tributaries of basicranial plexuses and retroarticular emissary vein; black asterisk, impression for?craniooccipital vein or emissarium from ventral petrosal sinus (see fig. 6). Even though this a young animal, suture line between ectotympanic and entotympanic is already obliterated (see Maier et al., 2013).

FIG. 26 in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 26. Trigonostylops wortmani AMNH VP-28700. A, B, basicranium in rostroventral aspect, with interpretative diagram based on updated version of Simpson's (1933a) figure 5, drawn in similar orientation; C, left auditory region (stereopair) in oblique rostroventral aspect, to reveal matrix-filled rostral (piriform) part of basicapsular fenestra; and D, left auditory region (stereopair) in oblique caudoventral aspect, to reveal close proximity of tympanic cavity and aditus of extratympanic sinus. In A, contour lines on basicranium rostral to ectotympanic (not in original illustration) approximate extent of matrix-filled basicapsular fenestra (see C). Labeling conforms to identifications and nomenclature used in this paper. Key: 1, caudal carotid incisure in ectotympanic; 2, Simpson's "foramen lacerum medium & Eustachian canal," actually medial limit of matrix-

FIG. 31. Digital 3D in Cranial Morphology And Phylogenetic Relationships Of Trigonostylops Wortmani, An Eocene South American Native Ungulate

FIG. 31. Digital 3D reconstructions of left osseous labyrinths of Trigonostylops wortmani AMNH VP-28700 and Astrapotherium magnum MACN A 3208 in lateral, ventral, and dorsal views. Both specimens are damaged (area of fenestra vestibuli in AMNH VP-28700; fenestra cochleae in MACN A 3208: arrow).