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135 results for “Weapons”
Selection for male weapons boosts female fecundity, eliminating sexual conflict in the bulb mite
<p>Extreme differences between the sexes are usually explained by intense sexual selection on male weapons or ornaments. Sexually antagonistic genes, with a positive effect on male traits but a negative effect on female fitness, create a negative inter-sexual correlation for fitness (sexual conflict). However, such antagonism might not be apparent if sexually selected male traits are condition-dependent, and condition elevates female fitness. Here we reveal a surprising positive genetic correlation between male weaponry and female fecundity. Using mite lines that had previously been through 13 generations of selection on male weapons (fighting legs), we investigated correlated evolution in female fecundity. Females from lines under positive selection for weapons (up lines) evolved higher fecundity, despite evolving costly, thicker legs. This is likely because male mites have condition-dependent weaponry that increases our ability to indirectly select on male condition. Alleles with positive effects on condition in both sexes could have generated this correlation because: the up lines evolved a higher proportion of fighters and there were positive correlations between weapon size and the male morph and sex ratios of the offspring. This positive inter-sexual genetic correlation should boost the evolution of male weapons and extreme sex differences.</p>
Weapon performance and contest assessment strategies of the cavitating snaps in snapping shrimp
<p class="MsoNormal">Animals compete in contests over limited resources. Contestants forfeit once they ascertain that their opponent has greater resource holding potential (RHP) (mutual assessment) or once they reach a threshold of costs (self assessment). Functional scaling studies of contest behavior performance can inform how assessment signals, offensive capacity, and endurance scale with RHP and thereby elucidate the mechanisms through which each of these assessment types operate. Here, we performed behavioral contest analyses to determine the assessment strategies used in snapping shrimp (<em>Alpheus heterochaelis</em>) contests. Then, we used biomechanical measurements of a common contest behavior to inform how assessment might operate. We were specifically interested in the snapping behavior during which snapping shrimp fire imploding cavitation bubbles – hereafter, "snaps" – at their opponents. We showed that <em>A. heterochaelis</em> use mutual assessment early in contests. Then, when they fire snaps, they switch to cumulative assessment – a type of self assessment where contestants endure costs from their own behaviors (e.g. energy) and their opponent's (e.g. injury). Because larger individuals tend to win contests, we then tested how the maximum performance and endurance of snaps scaled with size. We measured the average angular velocity of the snapping dactyl, cavitation bubble duration, and pressure of snaps as metrics of performance. We measured 10 snaps per individual (n = 76 individuals). From this series of 10 snaps, we calculated the maximum of each metric as the maximum performance and the attrition of each metric over the course of ten snaps as a measure of endurance. Maximum performance increased with size, but endurance did not. This suggests that cumulative assessment in snapping shrimp is driven by opponent-imposed costs. Our results are not consistent with self-assessment based on endurance; however, the experiment could not fully replicate the quick succession of snaps fired in real contests. Future experiments should better replicate the rapid firing of snaps to test if endurance matters in a more ecologically relevant context. Our framework of integrating biomechanics and behavioral ecology provide a pathway to identify precise mechanisms of contest assessment and animal behavior more broadly.</p>
Tradeoffs and benefits explain scaling, sex differences, and seasonal oscillations in the remarkable weapons of snapping shrimp (Alpheus spp.)
<p>Evolutionary theory suggests that individuals should express costly traits at a magnitude that optimizes the cost-benefit ratio for the trait-bearer. Trait expression varies across a species because costs and benefits vary among individuals. For example, if large individuals pay lower costs than small individuals, then larger individuals should reach optimal cost-benefit ratios at a greater magnitude of trait expression. Using the remarkable cavitation-shooting weapons found in the big claws of male and female alpheid snapping shrimp, we test whether size- and sex-dependent expenditures explain the scaling of weapon size relative to body size and why males have larger proportional weapon size than females. We found that males and females from three snapping shrimp species (<em>Alpheus</em> <em>heterochaelis</em>, <em>Alpheus</em> <em>angulosus</em>, and <em>Alpheus</em> <em>estuariensis</em>) exhibit resource allocation tradeoffs between weapon and abdomen mass. For male <em>A</em>. <em>heterochaelis</em>, the species for which we had the greatest sample size and statistical power, the smallest individuals showed the steepest tradeoff. Our extensive dataset in <em>A</em>. <em>heterochaelis</em> also included data about pairing, breeding season, and egg clutch size. Therefore, we could test for reproductive tradeoffs and benefits in this species. Female <em>A</em>. <em>heterochaelis</em> exhibited additional tradeoffs between weapon size and egg count, average egg volume, and total egg mass volume. For average egg volume, the smallest females exhibited the steepest tradeoff relative to weapon size. Furthermore, for both sexes, large weapons were positively correlated with the relative size of their pair mate; however, for males only, large weapons were positively correlated with being paired in the first place. In conclusion, we establish that size-dependent tradeoffs underlie reliable scaling relationships of costly traits. Furthermore, we show that males and females differ in weapon investment, suggesting that weapons are especially beneficial to males and especially burdensome to females.</p>
Macroevolution of sexually selected weapons: weapon evolution in chameleons
Abstract The evolution of sexually selected traits is a major topic in evolutionary biology. However, large-scale evolutionary patterns in these traits remain understudied, especially those traits used in male–male competition (weapons sensu lato). Here, we analyze weapon evolution in chamaeleonid lizards, both within and between the sexes. Chameleons are an outstanding model system because of their morphological diversity (including 11 weapon types among ~220 species) and a large-scale time-calibrated phylogeny. We analyze these 11 traits among 165 species using phylogenetic methods, addressing many questions for the first time in any group. We find that all 11 weapons have each evolved multiple times and that weapon origins are generally more frequent than their losses. We find that almost all weapons have each persisted for &gt;30 million years (and some for &gt;65 million years). Across chameleon phylogeny, we identify both hotspots for weapon evolution (up to 10 types present per species) and coldspots (all weapons absent, many through loss). These hotspots are significantly associated with larger male body size, but are only weakly related to sexual-size dimorphism. We also find that weapon evolution is strongly correlated between males and females. Overall, these results provide a baseline for understanding large-scale patterns of weapon evolution within clades.
An Inductive Analysis of the Kremlin's Weaponization of Digital Diplomacy on Telegram
<p>This dataset accompanies the paper "An Inductive Analysis of the Kremlin's Weaponization of Digital Diplomacy on Telegram" </p> <p>The file '4cat_data.csv' contains the original data for the 129 Telegram channels analysed in the paper, as scraped through the 4cat capture and analysis toolkit. </p> <p>The file embassy_topic_model_70.zip contains the topic model that was created from the Telegram messages, along with additional documentation and visualizations of the model. </p>
Macroevolution of sexually selected weapons: weapon evolution in chameleons
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Selection for male weapons boosts female fecundity, eliminating sexual conflict in the bulb mite
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Weapon performance and contest assessment strategies of the cavitating snaps in snapping shrimp
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Tradeoffs and benefits explain scaling, sex differences, and seasonal oscillations in the remarkable weapons of snapping shrimp (Alpheus spp.)
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Data from: Sexually-selected male weapon is associated with lower inbreeding load but higher gender load in the bulb mite
<p>Elaborate sexually selected ornaments and armaments are costly but increase the reproductive success of their bearers (usually males). It has been postulated that high-quality males can invest disproportionately more in such traits, making those traits honest signals of genetic quality. However, genes associated with such traits may have sexually antagonistic effects on fitness. Here, using a bulb mite <i>Rhizoglyphus robini</i>, a species in which a distinct dimorphism exists between males in the expression of a sexually selected weapon, we compare inbreeding and gender load between lines derived from armed fighters and unarmed scramblers. After four generations of sib-mating, inbreeding depression for female fitness was significantly lower in fighter-derived lines compared to scrambler-derived lines, suggesting that fighter males had significantly higher genetic quality. However, outbred females from fighter-derived lines had significantly lower fitness compared to outbred females from scrambler-derived lines, demonstrating significant gender load associated with the presence of a sexually selected male weapon. Our results imply that under outbreeding, genetic benefits of mating with bearers of elaborate sexually selected traits might be swamped by the costs of decreased fitness of female progeny due to sexually antagonistic effects.</p>
Weapon performance drives weapon evolution
Many sexually selected traits function as weapons, and these weapons can be incredibly diverse. However, the factors underlying weapon diversity among species remain poorly understood, and a fundamental hypothesis to explain this diversity remains untested. Although weapons can serve multiple functions, an undeniably important function is their role in fights. Thus, a crucial hypothesis is that weapon diversification is driven by the evolution of weapon modifications that provide an advantage in combat (e.g. causing more damage). Here, we test this fighting-advantage hypothesis using data from 17 species of coreid bugs. We utilize the fact that male-male combat in coreids often results in detectable damage, allowing us to link different weapon morphologies to different levels of damage among species. We find that certain weapon morphologies inflict much more damage than others, strongly supporting the fighting-advantage hypothesis. Moreover, very different weapon morphologies can inflict similarly severe amounts of damage, leading to a weapon-performance landscape with multiple performance peaks. This multi-peak pattern could potentially drive different lineages towards divergent weapon forms, further increasing weapon diversity among species. Overall, our results may help explain how sexually selected weapons have evolved into the diversity of forms seen today.
Data from: A weapons-testes trade-off in males is amplified in female traits
Sexually selected weapons are assumed to trade off with traits related to ejaculates, such as testes. Yet, remarkably little is known about what governs resource allocation and why trade-offs are found in some cases and not others. Often-used models depict competitive allocation occurring within the functional grouping of traits (e.g., reproduction); however, other factors including tissue expense and developmental timing may influence allocation. Experimental comparisons of investment across the sexes have the potential to illuminate allocation rules, because the sexes do not always use traits for the same functions. Here, we capitalize upon a species where females have weapons-testes homologues. We report that a documented trade-off in investment between hind-limb weapons and testes in leaf-footed cactus bugs, Narnia femorata, is even more pronounced in female hind limbs and ovaries. Female hind limbs in this species do not share the clear reproductive function of male hind limbs, therefore this trade-off spans trait functional groups. Such patterns of investment suggest that future studies of reproductive trade-offs should consider factors such as tissue expense and developmental timing.
Low poly medieval weapons free pack
Medieval weapons pack includes 2 shields, a sword, a slinger, a dagger, a bow with a quiver and arrows, and an ax Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Weapon Mace low poly
Low Poly Weapon Mace UV mapped and textured. Designed for videogames. Created with blender 3D . The texture come in jpg format 1024x1024 size. Formats avaible - obj,blnder file A low poly hammer made in blender that you could use with unity or unreal. Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Medieval weapon rack
Modelled with Maya. UVs in Maya. Textured in Substance Painter. For a small project Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Inbreeding depression in a sexually selected weapon and the homologue in females
<p>Theory predicts that traits with heightened condition-dependence, such as sexually selected traits, should be affected by inbreeding to a greater degree than other traits. The presence of environmental stress may compound the negative consequences of inbreeding depression. In this study we examined inbreeding depression across multiple traits and whether it increased with a known form of environmental stress. We conducted our experiment using both sexes of the sexually dimorphic leaf-footed cactus bug, <em>Narnia femorata </em>(Hemiptera: Coreidae). Adult male cactus bugs have enlarged hind legs used as weapons in male-male contests; these traits, and their homologue in females, have been previously found to exhibit high condition-dependence. In this study, we employed small developmental group size as an environmental stress challenge. Nymph <em>N. femorata</em> aggregate throughout their juvenile stages, and previous work has shown the negative effects of small group size on survivorship and body size. We found evidence of inbreeding depression for survival and seven out of the eight morphological traits measured, in both sexes. Inbreeding depression was higher for the size of the male weapon and the female homolog. Additionally, small developmental group size negatively affected survival to adulthood. However, small group size did not magnify the effects of inbreeding on morphological traits. These findings support the hypothesis that traits with heightened condition-dependence exhibit higher levels of inbreeding depression.</p>
Viking shields fantasy weapons. Download Free.
Design inspired by Viking and Norse shields. Low Poly for VR, games unity, unreal. Normals baked from high level of detail. Free download Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
A set of ancient weapons
A set of ancient weapons, sword, one-handed ax, two-handed ax, dagger and spear. Adjusted to real dimensions Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Viking Weapons Collection, Axes. Download Free.
Weapon ancient inspired for videogames (optimized version included). Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
Viking Weapons and Boat Set
Small pack I made for challenge #AdventureKitChallenge . Textures are combination of Smart materials from 3DCoat and handpainted parts. I had a lot of fun and learned lots of cool things when it comes to making such models. *Low to mid poly models* *2K texutres for all models* Made in 3DCoat and Blender No external textures used Source: Objaverse 1.0 / Sketchfab
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