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Context‐dependent expression of variation in defensive behaviour in the lower termite Zootermopsis nevadensis
<p>Eusocial animals exhibit a sophisticated division of labour. The self-organized colony requires coordination of local interactions at the individual level. Termites are a well-known group exhibiting social organization among castes within a colony, and helper castes have facilitated their ecological and evolutionary success. Termites have soldier castes specialized in defence, but other castes are also known to exhibit defensive behaviour depending on the context. However, it is unclear how the variation in the frequencies of defensive behaviour emerged. Here, we investigate the effects of presence of nestmates on individual defensive behaviour in the dampwood termite <em>Zootermopsis nevadensis</em>. We experimentally prepared three conditions and observed biting behaviour against the ant <em>Camponotus obscuripes</em>. First, the frequency of biting was significantly higher in soldiers than that in pseudergates (i.e., workers) under isolated conditions. Second, the results showed that the frequencies of biting exhibited by soldiers were much higher than those of pseudergates in the pseudergate–soldier pairs. Finally, we investigated the social conditions in the presence of the same castes, that is, pseudergate–pseudergate and soldier–soldier pairs. The frequencies of biting exhibited by first-biting individuals were significantly higher than those exhibited by second-biting individuals in both paired conditions. Our findings demonstrate that defensive behaviour can be frequently observed in first-biting individuals despite the presence of two individuals of the same caste, suggesting that the variation of defensive behaviour may be increased in the presence of nestmates.</p>
Context‐dependent expression of variation in defensive behaviour in the lower termite Zootermopsis nevadensis
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Figure 9 from: Thorne B, Johnson S, Breisch N, Momen B (2011) Morphology and gonad development of normal soldiers and reproductive soldiers of the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis nevadensis (Isoptera, Archotermopsidae). ZooKeys 148: 15-30. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.148.1672
Figure 9 - Male reproductive soldier (top) and male soldier (bottom). Note coloration of abdomen, shape of head capsule, and ratio of mandible to labrum length.
Figure 8 from: Thorne B, Johnson S, Breisch N, Momen B (2011) Morphology and gonad development of normal soldiers and reproductive soldiers of the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis nevadensis (Isoptera, Archotermopsidae). ZooKeys 148: 15-30. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.148.1672
Figure 8 - Ovaries of a a female reproductive soldier and b a female soldier. The female reproductive soldier ovarioles are much more developed and contain several eggs, while the female soldier ovarioles are reduced, with no evidence of egg development.
Figure 5 from: Thorne B, Johnson S, Breisch N, Momen B (2011) Morphology and gonad development of normal soldiers and reproductive soldiers of the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis nevadensis (Isoptera, Archotermopsidae). ZooKeys 148: 15-30. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.148.1672
Figure 5 - Correlation between ovary length and the ratio of mandible length to labrum length in female soldier morphs (soldiers and reproductive soldiers).
Figure 4 from: Thorne B, Johnson S, Breisch N, Momen B (2011) Morphology and gonad development of normal soldiers and reproductive soldiers of the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis nevadensis (Isoptera, Archotermopsidae). ZooKeys 148: 15-30. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.148.1672
Figure 4 - Comparison of means for ratio of mandible length to labrum length of male and female soldiers and reproductive soldiers. Within sex, soldiers had statistically significantly different mean ratios than reproductive soldiers (p < 0.01). Error bars indicate standard errors. Source data for the figure are listed in a table in the Supplementary Material.
Figure 2 from: Thorne B, Johnson S, Breisch N, Momen B (2011) Morphology and gonad development of normal soldiers and reproductive soldiers of the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis nevadensis (Isoptera, Archotermopsidae). ZooKeys 148: 15-30. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.148.1672
Figure 2 - Correlation between testis width and ratio of mandible length to labrum length in male soldiers and new and mature reproductive soldiers.
Figure 3 from: Thorne B, Johnson S, Breisch N, Momen B (2011) Morphology and gonad development of normal soldiers and reproductive soldiers of the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis nevadensis (Isoptera, Archotermopsidae). ZooKeys 148: 15-30. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.148.1672
Figure 3 - Comparison of means for testis width (mm) of male soldiers, reproductive soldiers and new and mature kings. Means with the same letter are not significantly different. Error bars indicate standard errors.
Figure 1 from: Thorne B, Johnson S, Breisch N, Momen B (2011) Morphology and gonad development of normal soldiers and reproductive soldiers of the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis nevadensis (Isoptera, Archotermopsidae). ZooKeys 148: 15-30. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.148.1672
Figure 1 - Comparison of means for live weight (g) of male soldiers, reproductive soldiers and primary reproductives (new and mature kings). Means with the same letter are not significantly different. Error bars indicate standard errors.
Figure 6 from: Thorne B, Johnson S, Breisch N, Momen B (2011) Morphology and gonad development of normal soldiers and reproductive soldiers of the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis nevadensis (Isoptera, Archotermopsidae). ZooKeys 148: 15-30. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.148.1672
Figure 6 - Correlation between testis diameter at the widest point and the ratio of mandible length to labrum length in male soldier morphs (soldiers and reproductive soldiers).
Figure 7 from: Thorne B, Johnson S, Breisch N, Momen B (2011) Morphology and gonad development of normal soldiers and reproductive soldiers of the termite Zootermopsis nevadensis nevadensis (Isoptera, Archotermopsidae). ZooKeys 148: 15-30. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.148.1672
Figure 7 - Testes and accessory glands of a male reproductive soldier and b male soldier. Both preparations were photographed under the same magnification.
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