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Dissecting the smell of fear from conspecific and heterospecific prey: Investigating the processes that induce anti-predator defenses.
Prey use chemical cues from predation events to obtain information about predation risk to alter their phenotypes. Though we know how many prey respond to predators, we still have a poor understanding of the processes and chemical cues involved during a predation event. We examined how gray treefrog tadpoles (Hyla verisciolor) altered their behavior and morphology when raised with cues from different stages of predator attack, predators fed different amounts of prey, and predators consuming different combinations of treefrog tadpoles or snails (Helisoma trivolvis). We found that starved predators and predators fed snails induced no defensive responses whereas tadpoles exposed to a predator consuming gray treefrogs induced greater hiding, lower activity, and relatively deeper tails. We also found that the tadpoles did not respond to crushed, chewed, or digested conspecifics, but they did respond to consumed (i.e. chewed + digested) conspecifics. When we increased the treefrog biomass consumed by predators, tadpoles frequently increased their defenses when only tadpoles were consumed and always increased their defenses when the total diet biomass was held constant via the inclusion of snails. When predators experienced temporal variation in diet composition, including cues from snails to cause additional digestive cues or chemical noise, there was no effect on tadpole phenotypes. Our results suggest that amphibian prey rely on cues from both chewing and digestion of conspecifics and that the presence of cues from digested heterospecifics play little or no role in adding chemical noise or increased digestive enzymes and by-products that interfere with induced defenses.
When should prey respond to heterospecific alarm cues? Testing the hypotheses of perceived risk.
In aquatic systems, a long-standing question is why chemical cues from some diets consumed by a predator induce strong anti-predator responses in prey while other diets induce weak or no responses. We performed an experiment to determine if strong prey responses to particular predator diets are due to prey being closely related to the predator’s diet (i.e., phylogenetic relatedness) or due to prey coexisting with the predator’s diet and thereby sharing a risk of predation. We compared the behavior of Gray Treefrog tadpoles (Hyla versicolor) to cues from a dragonfly nymph (Anax junius) that consumed either conspecific Gray Treefrogs, one of six diets that commonly coexist with Gray Treefrogs (spanning a wide range of phylogenetic relatedness), or one diet that is closely related to Gray Treefrogs but has an allopatric range that has not overlapped for at least 20,000 yrs. We found that tadpoles could discriminate among the diets and that the magnitude of behavioral response supported the hypothesis of diet phylogenetic relatedness and refuted the hypothesis of diet coexistence.
Fig. 9. Gastral tergite I and II in Genome-wide MIG-seq and morphometric data reveals heterospecificity of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ectatomminae) in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam
Fig. 9. Gastral tergite I and II of the worker of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group, in dorsal view. A, Lineage A, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929), colony Dai11iii17-295; B, Lineage B, cf. G. dentihumera Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017, Dai15iii18-731; C, Lineage C, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929), Eg21ix17-299; D, Lineage D, cf. G. coccina Zhou, 2001, Eg13v17-1255; E, Lineage E, cf. G. quadrutinodules Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017, Eg21ix17-310; F, Lineage G = G. sp. 7 of NDD, Dai15iii18-726.
Fig. 8 in Genome-wide MIG-seq and morphometric data reveals heterospecificity of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ectatomminae) in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam
Fig. 8. Propodeum and petiole of the worker of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group, in lateral view. A, Lineage A, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929), colony Dai11iii17-295; B, Lineage C, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929), Eg21ix17-299; C, Lineage D, cf. G. coccina Zhou, 2001, Eg13v17-1255; D, G. sp. 3 of NDD, Eg14v17-1287; E, Lineage E, cf. G. quadrutinodules Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017, Eg21ix17-310; F, Lineage G = G. sp. 7 of NDD, Dai15iii18-726.
Fig. 7 in Genome-wide MIG-seq and morphometric data reveals heterospecificity of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ectatomminae) in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam
Fig. 7. Posterior declivity of propodeum of the worker of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group, in posterior view. A, Lineage B, cf. G. dentihumera Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017, colony Dai15iii18-731; B, Lineage D, cf. G. coccina Zhou, 2001, Eg13v17-1255; C, Lineage F, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929), Eg13iii18-091; D, Lineage E, cf. G. quadrutinodules Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017, Eg21ix17-310.
Fig. 5 in Genome-wide MIG-seq and morphometric data reveals heterospecificity of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ectatomminae) in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam
Fig. 5. Dendrogram of NC-Ward clustering based on 25 morphometric characters of the worker of Gnamptogenys taivanensis group. Association with MIG-seq lineages and singleton colonies are shown by coloured bars and letters. Black bars indicate clusters by NC-Kmeans clustering with K=8. Lineage A, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929); Lineage B, cf. G. dentihumera Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017; Lineage C, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929); Lineage D, cf. G. coccina Zhou, 2001; Lineage E, cf. G. quadrutinodules Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017; Lineage F, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929); Lineage G = G. sp. 7 of NDD.
Fig. 6 in Genome-wide MIG-seq and morphometric data reveals heterospecificity of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ectatomminae) in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam
Fig. 6. Head of the worker of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group, in lateral view. A, Lineage A, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929), colony Dai11iii17-295; B, Lineage B, cf. G. dentihumera Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017, Dai15iii18-731; C, Lineage C, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929), Eg21ix17-299; D, Lineage D, cf. G. coccina Zhou, 2001, Eg13v17-1255; E, Lineage E, cf. G. quadrutinodules Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017, Eg21ix17-310; F, Lineage G = G. sp. 7 of NDD, Dai15iii18-726.
Fig. 1 in Genome-wide MIG-seq and morphometric data reveals heterospecificity of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ectatomminae) in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam
Fig. 1. Worker morphometric characters for the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group. Abbreviations of characters are given in Material and Methods. Yellow line indicates a primary baseline. Blue lines indicate secondary baselines that are parallel or vertical to the primary baseline. A, head in full-face view, with primary baseline passing the posteriormost points of vertex; B, head in lateral view, with primary baseline passing the posterodorsalmost part of mandibular insertion and the centre of eye; C, mesosoma in lateral view, with primary baseline passing the posteroventralmost corner of pronotum and the centre of propodeal spiracle; D, mesosoma in dorsal view, with primary baseline passing the midpoint of anterior margin of pronotum to the midpoint of a transverse line spanning the posteriormost points of metapleuron; E, petiole in lateral view, with primary baseline passing the petiolar spiracle and posterodorsal most corner of petiolar tergite; F, petiole and gaster in dorsal view, with primary baseline passing the anteriormost points of anterolateral corners of petiole; G, gaster in lateral view, with primary baseline passing the centre of the spiracle of gastral tergite I and the posteriormost point of tergo-sternal suture of the gastral segment I.
Fig. 4 in Genome-wide MIG-seq and morphometric data reveals heterospecificity of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ectatomminae) in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam
Fig. 4. Bayesian (left) and Maximum likelihood (right) consensus phylogenetic trees inferred based on 569 bp of the mitochondrial COI gene. Outgroups are not shown. Associations with MIG-seq lineages and independent OTUs are shown by corresponding letters and colours beside colony code. Supports by ultrafast bootstrap (UB in %) or posterior probability (PP) are given beside the nodes.
Fig. 3 in Genome-wide MIG-seq and morphometric data reveals heterospecificity of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ectatomminae) in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam
Fig. 3. Geographic distribution of the seven major lineages of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group recovered by phylogenetic analyses based on the MIG-seq datasets. A, large-scaled distribution map with pie charts indicating the composition of lineages for each locality (numbers indicates the number of colonies); B small-scaled distribution pattern of each lineage in Tay Con Linh NR; C, small-scaled distribution pattern of each lineage in Hoang Lien Son NP. Lineage A, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929); Lineage B, cf. G. dentihumera Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017; Lineage C, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929); Lineage D, cf. G. coccina Zhou, 2001; Lineage E, cf. G. quadrutinodules Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017; Lineage F, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929); Lineage G = G. sp. 7 of NDD.
Fig. 2 in Genome-wide MIG-seq and morphometric data reveals heterospecificity of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ectatomminae) in the northern mountainous region of Vietnam
Fig. 2. Unrooted consensus phylogenetic trees of the Gnamptogenys taivanensis group inferred based on concatenated datasets of MIGseq loci generated by Stacks (left) and ipyrad (right). Branch lengths and topology are based on the Bayesian inference tree. Supports by ultrafast bootstrap (UB in %) and posterior probability (PP) are given beside the nodes. Lineage A, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929); Lineage B, cf. G. dentihumera Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017; Lineage C, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929); Lineage D, cf. G. coccina Zhou, 2001; Lineage E, cf. G. quadrutinodules Chen, Lattke et Zhou, 2017; Lineage F, cf. G. taivanensis (Wheeler, 1929); Lineage G = G. sp. 7 of NDD.
Data for: Using spatial patterns of seeds and saplings to assess the prevalence of heterospecific replacements among cloud forest canopy tree species
<p><b>Questions:</b> To gain insights into the role of species-by-species replacements in cloud forest community structuring, we asked: (1) What are the effects of the spatial distribution of standing individuals on the seed rain, soil seed bank, and sapling density and survival in this cloud forest? and (2) What is the prevalence of conspecific vs<i>.</i> heterospecific replacements in the regeneration of this forest?</p> <p><b>Location:</b> Santo Tomás Teipan, Oaxaca State, southern Mexico.</p> <p><b>Methods:</b> In a 1-ha cloud forest plot we assessed seed rain, seed bank, and sapling density and survival of four canopy tree species (<i>Chiranthodendron pentadactylon</i>, <i>Cornus disciflora</i>,<i> Quercus laurina</i>, <i>Oreopanax</i> <i>xalapensis</i>). All standing individuals of these and other tree species (dbh ≥ 2.5 cm) were mapped. We used neighbourhood models to examine the spatial patterns of the three life cycle stages relative to the spatial distribution of adults. The neighbourhood effect was assessed through the Neighbourhood Index, which integrates information on size (dbh) and distance to adults. Data analysis was based on maximum likelihood and model selection procedures.</p> <p><b>Results:</b> We found large between-species differences regarding the spatial patterns of seeds and saplings. Three species showed evidence for the Janzen-Connell effect operating at the seed (<i>C. pentadactylon</i> and <i>Q. laurina</i>) or sapling (<i>O.</i> <i>xalapensis</i>) stage. We also found support for a critical role of specific microsite factors (i.e., niche differentiation) in the regeneration of two species (<i>C. pentadactylon</i> and <i>C. disciflora</i>).</p> <p><b>Conclusions:</b> Seed and sapling distribution patterns suggest the prevalence of heterospecific replacements, and that both Janzen-Connell and niche differentiation effects contribute to this pattern. Our results largely support the notion that the prevalence of heterospecific replacements among canopy species promotes species coexistence in cloud forest.</p>
Data for: Effect of heterospecific and conspecific competition on individual differences in tadpole behavior
<p>Repeated social interactions with conspecifics and/or heterospecifics during early development may drive the differentiation of behaviour among individuals. This behavioural differentiation may occur through individuals behaving more different from each other on average and/or individuals behaving more consistently. Competition is a major form of social interaction and its impacts can depend on whether interactions occur between conspecifics or heterospecifics and the directionality of a response could be specific to different behavioural traits. To test this, we reared tungara frog tadpoles (<em>Engystomops pustulosus</em>) either in isolation, with a conspecific tadpole or with an aggressive heterospecific tadpole, the whistling frog tadpole, <em>Leptodactylus fuscus</em>. In each treatment, we measured the body size, activity, exploration and risk taking in the presence of a predator in focal <em>E. pustulosus</em> tadpoles six times during development. We used univariate and multivariate hierarchical mixed effect models to investigate the effect of treatment on mean behaviour and on among individual variance between and within individuals across behavioural traits. There was a strong effect of competition on behaviour, with different population and individual level responses across social treatments. Within their home tank, individuals were more consistent in their movements under conspecific competition but heterospecific competition caused more variance in the average movement among individuals. Behavioural responses were also trait specific as conspecific competition caused greater variability in movements among individuals in a novel environment. The results highlight that the impact of competition on inter-individual differences in behaviour is dependent on competitor species identity and is trait specific. Keywords: animal personality, competition, conspecific, heterospecific, individual differences, variance partitioning.</p>
Data for: Using spatial patterns of seeds and saplings to assess the prevalence of heterospecific replacements among cloud forest canopy tree species
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Nestling birds learn socially to eavesdrop on heterospecific alarm calls through acoustic association
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Data for: Effect of heterospecific and conspecific competition on individual differences in tadpole behavior
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Data from: Quantitative genetics of the use of conspecific and heterospecific social cues for breeding site choice
<p>Social information use for decision-making is common and affects ecological and evolutionary processes, including social aggregation, species coexistence and cultural evolution. Despite increasing ecological knowledge on social information use, very little is known about its genetic basis and therefore its evolutionary potential. Genetic variation in a trait affecting an individual's social and non-social environment may have important implications for population dynamics, interspecific interactions and for expression of other, environmentally plastic traits. We estimated repeatability, additive genetic variance and heritability of the use of conspecific and heterospecific social cues (abundance and breeding success) for breeding site choice in a population of wild collared flycatchers Ficedula albicollis. Repeatability was found for two social cues: previous year conspecific breeding success and previous year heterospecific abundance. Yet, additive genetic variances for these two social cues, and thus heritabilities, were low. This suggests that most of the phenotypic variation in the use of social cues and resulting conspecific and heterospecific social environment experienced by individuals in this population stems from phenotypic plasticity. Given the important role of social information use on ecological and evolutionary processes, more studies on genetic versus environmental determinism of social information use are needed.</p>
Data from: Heterospecific mating interactions as an interface between ecology and evolution
<p>Reproductive interference (costly interspecific sexual interactions) are well-understood to promote divergence in mating-relevant traits (i.e. reproductive character displacement: RCD), but it can also reduce population growth, eventually leading to local extinction of one of the species. The ecological and evolutionary processes driven by reproductive interference can interact with each other. These interactions are likely to influence whether the outcome is co-existence or extinction, but remain little studied. In this paper, we first develop an eco-evolutionary perspective on reproductive interference by integrating ecological and evolutionary processes in a common framework. We also present a simple model to demonstrate the eco-evolutionary dynamics of reproductive interference. We then identify a number of factors that are likely to influence the relative likelihoods of extinction or RCD. We discuss particularly relevant factors by classifying them into four categories: the nature of the traits responding to selection, the mechanisms determining the expression of these traits, mechanisms of reproductive interference, and the ecological background. We highlight previously underappreciated ways in which these factors may influence the relative likelihoods of RCD and local extinction. By doing so, we also identify questions and future directions that will increase our holistic understanding of the outcomes of reproductive interference.</p>
Data from: The effects of heterospecific mating frequency on the strength of cryptic reproductive barriers
Heterospecific mating frequency is critical to hybrid zone dynamics and can directly impact the strength of reproductive barriers and patterns of introgression. The ef‐ fectiveness of post‐mating prezygotic (PMPZ) reproductive barriers, which include reduced fecundity via heterospecific matings and conspecific sperm precedence, may depend on the number, identity and order of mates. Studies of PMPZ barriers suggest that they may be important in many systems, but whether these barriers are effective at realistic heterospecific mating frequencies has not been tested. Here, we evaluate the strength of cryptic reproductive isolation in two leaf beetles (Chrysochus auratus and C. cobaltinus) in the context of a range of heterospecific mating frequen‐ cies observed in natural populations. We found both species benefited from multiple matings, but the benefits were greater in C. cobaltinus and extended to heterospecific matings. We found that PMPZ barriers greatly limited hybrid production by C. aura- tus females with moderate heterospecific mating frequencies, but that their effec‐ tiveness diminished at higher heterospecific mating frequencies. In contrast, there was no evidence for PMPZ barriers in C. cobaltinus females at any heterospecific mating frequency. We show that integrating realistic estimates of cryptic isolation with information on relative abundance and heterospecific mating frequency in the field substantially improves our understanding of the strong directional bias in F1 production previously documented in the Chrysochus hybrid zone. Our results dem‐ onstrate that heterospecific mating frequency is critical to understanding the impact of cryptic post‐copulatory barriers on hybrid zone structure and dynamics, and that future studies of such barriers should incorporate field‐relevant heterospecific mat‐ ing frequencies.
Data from: Context-dependent costs and benefits of a heterospecific nesting association
The costs and benefits of interactions among species can vary spatially or temporally, making them context-dependent. For example, benefits associated with nesting near species that deter predators may give way to costs if the association increases the risk of predation during other stages of reproduction. We examined the extent to which the costs and benefits of heterospecific aggregations between a declining shorebird, the Hudsonian Godwit (Limosa haemastica), and a potential protector and predator, the Mew Gull (Larus canus), varied with breeding stage. Specifically, we assessed the spatial distribution and fate of 43 godwit and 262 gull nests in Beluga, Alaska, from 2014 – 2016. We then evaluated the effect of habitat and proximity to gulls on daily survival rates of 120 godwit nests from 2009 – 2016. We also examined the relationship between the proximity to gulls and survival of godwit chicks to five days old, the period when they are vulnerable to gull predation. Nests of godwits and gulls were significantly clustered across the landscape, a pattern that habitat heterogeneity failed to explain. Hatching success of godwit nests improved with proximity to the gull colony and increasing numbers of gull nests within 200m. In contrast, survival of godwit chicks to five days improved with increasing distance to the gull colony. The costs and benefits that godwits derived from associating with Mew Gulls were thus context-dependent, with benefits pre-hatch and costs post-hatch. Our results show how spatiotemporal variation in species interactions preclude simple generalizations about the nature of their outcomes.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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International Brain Laboratory public data
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OpenNeuro
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