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Fig. 1 in Limb posture in early mammals: Sprawling or parasagittal

Fig. 1. Comparison of os calcaris in a Recent monotreme and a Cretaceous multituberculate. A. The left tarsus of monotreme Ornithorhynchus anatinus (Shaw, 1799), ZMO 11793, an adult male, showing the well−preserved venomous cornu calcaris facing medially. B. Proximal part of the left tarsus of Catopsbaatar catopsaloides (Kielan−Jaworowska, 1974), showing os calcaris in proximal view. PM 120/107, Late Cretaceous red beds of Hermiin Tsav, (?late Campanian), Hermiin Tsav I, Gobi Desert, Mongolia. Note the roughly triangular shape of os calcaris in C. catopsaloides and its undulating surface, indicating the presence of cornu calcaris upon it.

Fig. 5 in Limb posture in early mammals: Sprawling or parasagittal

Fig. 5. Diagrammatical drawings of two skeletons of Mesozoic mammals from lacustrine sediments, re−drawn and simplified from the published drawings. Limb bones are shaded in grey. The arrow points to os calcaris. Both skeletons show sprawling posture. They are preserved dorso−ventrally compressed and exposed in ventral views, showing abducted limbs (as those in Jehol Biota, illustrated in Fig. 4A–F). A. Castorocauda lutrasimilis Ji Q., Luo, Yuan, and Tabrum, 2006, a Middle Jurassic docodontan from north−west China, in ventral view, based on Ji Q. et al. (2006: fig. 1b). B. Henkelotherium guimarotae Krebs, 1991, a "eupantotherian" from the Kimmeridgian of Portugal, in ventral view, based on Henkel and Krebs (1977). Scale bars 10 mm.

Fig. 3. A in Limb posture in early mammals: Sprawling or parasagittal

Fig. 3. A comparison of the state of preservation of the skeletons of two Early Cretaceous mammals from the Yixian Formation of Jehol Biota in China (A, B), and an Eocene eutherian mammal from Messel in Germany (C), all preserved in lacustrine sediments. A. "Symmetrodontan" Zhangheotherium quinquecuspidens Hu, Wang Y.−Q., Luo, and Li Ch.−K., 1997 (cast of IVPP V7466). B. Early eutherian Eomaia scansoria Ji Q., Luo, Yuan, Wible, Hang, and Georgi, 2002. (CAGS 01−IG−1). C. Amphilemurine insectivore Macrocranion tupaiodon Weitzel, 1949 (PMO 207.791). Eomaia and Macrocranion are eutherians with parasagittal limbs and are preserved lying on their sides, Zhangheotherium belongs to "symmetrodontans" with sprawling limbs and has been preserved in a position characteristic of animals with sprawling posture, lying on its back. Scale bars 10 mm.

Fig. 2 in Limb posture in early mammals: Sprawling or parasagittal

Fig. 2. Reconstruction of the posture of the Late Cretaceous multituberculate Catopsbaatar catopsaloides (Kielan−Jaworowska, 1974) from the Gobi Desert, Mongolia, as a plantigrade mammal with sprawling limbs. Skull length is about 60 mm. The size of the spur has been reconstructed based on the length of the male spur in Ornithorhynchus in comparison to the length of the foot. The animal is reconstructed in aggressive position, ready for attack, with mobile spurs projecting medially. (Artwork by Bogusław Waksmundzki.)

opencc-zeroOct 2020View details →

Raw data accompanying: Ground reaction forces in monitor lizards (Varanidae) and the scaling of locomotion in sprawling tetrapods

Geometric scaling predicts a major challenge for legged, terrestrial locomotion. Locomotor support requirements scale identically with body mass (α M1), while force generation capacity should scale α M2/3 as it depends on muscle cross-sectional area. Mammals compensate with more upright limb postures at larger sizes, but it remains unknown how sprawling tetrapods deal with this challenge. Varanid lizards are an ideal group to address this question because they cover an enormous body size range while maintaining a similar bent-limb posture and body proportions. This study reports the scaling of ground reaction forces and duty factor for varanid lizards ranging from 7 g 37 kg. Impulses (force x time) scaled roughly as predicted by the inverted pendulum model (α M0.99-1.34) while peak forces (α M0.73-1.00) scaled higher than expected. Duty factor scaled α M0.04 and was higher for the hindlimb than the forelimb. The proportion of vertical impulse to total impulse increased with body size, and impulses decreased while peak forces increased with speed. These results provide valuable data into how locomotor forces vary with body size and suggest how other, extinct, sprawling tetrapods may have dealt with the biomechanical challenges associated with generating sufficient locomotor forces at larger body sizes.

opencc-zeroJul 2023View details →

Data from: A phylogenetic analysis of Marcetia (Melastomataceae, Marcetieae) and three new sprawling species from Bahia, Brazil

Binary images of leaves and anther connectives of Marcetia alba, M. barbadensis, M. minima, and M. serratifolia. These images were used to generate outlines for the shape analyses in Momocs.

publicNov 2023View details →

Data from: A phylogenetic analysis of Marcetia (Melastomataceae, Marcetieae) and three new sprawling species from Bahia, Brazil

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publicJan 2021View details →

Raw data accompanying: Ground reaction forces in monitor lizards (Varanidae) and the scaling of locomotion in sprawling tetrapods

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opencc-zeroDec 2017View details →

Data from: Compact cities or sprawling suburbs? optimising the distribution of people in cities to maximise species diversity

1. Conservation of biodiversity in urban environments depends on the responses of species to the intensity of urban development. 'Land sharing' and 'land sparing' represent alternate ends of a gradient that conceptualises a trade-off between the human population and biodiversity. We used a linear optimisation procedure to 1) identify the optimal allocation of land for people and nature, 2) assess whether the optimal allocation is more similar to land sparing or land sharing, and 3) examine how this might change under scenarios of human population growth. 2. We surveyed birds in 28 landscapes, each 25 ha in size, along a gradient of human population density (zero to ~1600 persons/25 ha) in the Greater Melbourne region, Australia. Species' responses to population density were estimated using generalised additive models (GAMs). These relationships were then used to determine the optimal allocation of land among different categories of population density based on maximising a community index, the geometric mean of relative abundance (G) of bird species. 3. Human population density was an important driver of the reporting rate for 28 species. Response curves differed among 'urban avoider', 'urban adapter' and 'urban exploiter' species. For the current human population in the study area, optimal allocation of land included elements of both land sharing and land sparing. However, for scenarios of increased population size, optimal allocation converged upon a land sparing design. 5. Synthesis and applications. Urban areas represent a mosaic of land uses that offer habitats of differing quality. Land sharing, based on sustaining biota amongst residential areas, performed poorly under all scenarios due to its inability to support species that depend on natural or semi-natural habitat. To sustain more than a homogenised avifauna in urban regions, large tracts of natural vegetation are needed within, or adjacent to, the urban environment. Protecting natural areas on urban fringes will be critical to the safeguarding of nature in the future as urban populations and land-use inevitably expand.

opencc-zeroDec 2014View details →

Data from: A century of sprawl in the United States

The urban street network is one of the most permanent features of cities. Once laid down, the pattern of streets determines urban form and the level of sprawl for decades to come. We present a high-resolution time series of urban sprawl, as measured through street network connectivity, in the United States from 1920 to 2012. Sprawl started well before private car ownership was dominant and grew steadily until the mid-1990s. Over the last two decades, however, new streets have become significantly more connected and grid-like; the peak in street-network sprawl in the United States occurred in ∼1994. By one measure of connectivity, the mean nodal degree of intersections, sprawl fell by ∼9% between 1994 and 2012. We analyze spatial variation in these changes and demonstrate the persistence of sprawl. Places that were built with a low-connectivity street network tend to stay that way, even as the network expands. We also find suggestive evidence that local government policies impact sprawl, as the largest increases in connectivity have occurred in places with policies to promote gridded streets and similar New Urbanist design principles. We provide for public use a county-level version of our street-network sprawl dataset comprising a time series of nearly 100 y.

publicMay 2019View details →

Data from: Compact cities or sprawling suburbs? optimising the distribution of people in cities to maximise species diversity

Open the record for dataset details and reuse information.