Find research datasets worth reusing

opencc-zeroDec 2014View details →

Data from: Venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome of the Malaysian king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)

Background: The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is widely distributed throughout many parts of Asia. This study aims to investigate the complexity of Malaysian Ophiophagus hannah (MOh) venom for a better understanding of king cobra venom variation and its envenoming pathophysiology. The venom gland transcriptome was investigated using the Illumina HiSeq™ platform, while the venom proteome was profiled by 1D-SDS-PAGE-nano-ESI-LCMS/MS. Results: Transcriptomic results reveal high redundancy of toxin transcripts (3357.36 FPKM/transcript) despite small cluster numbers, implying gene duplication and diversification within restricted protein families. Among the 23 toxin families identified, three-finger toxins (3FTxs) and snake-venom metalloproteases (SVMPs) have the most diverse isoforms. These 2 toxin families are also the most abundantly transcribed, followed in descending order by phospholipases A 2 (PLA 2 s), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), Kunitz-type inhibitors (KUNs), and L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs). Seventeen toxin families exhibited low mRNA expression, including hyaluronidase, DPP-IV and 5'-nucleotidase that were not previously reported in the venom-gland transcriptome of a Balinese O. hannah. On the other hand, the MOh proteome includes 3FTxs, the most abundantly expressed proteins in the venom (43 % toxin sbundance). Within this toxin family, there are 6 long-chain, 5 short-chain and 2 non-conventional 3FTx. Neurotoxins comprise the major 3FTxs in the MOh venom, consistent with rapid neuromuscular paralysis reported in systemic envenoming. The presence of toxic enzymes such as LAAOs, SVMPs and PLA 2 would explain tissue inflammation and necrotising destruction in local envenoming. Dissimilarities in the subtypes and sequences between the neurotoxins of MOh and Naja kaouthia (monocled cobra) are in agreement with the poor cross-neutralization activity of N. kaouthia antivenom used against MOh venom. Besides, the presence of cobra venom factor, nerve growth factors, phosphodiesterase, 5'-nucleotidase, and DPP-IV in the venom proteome suggests its probable hypotensive action in subduing prey. Conclusion: This study reports the diversity and abundance of toxins in the venom of the Malaysian king cobra (MOh). The results correlate with the pathophysiological actions of MOh venom, and dispute the use of Naja cobra antivenoms to treat MOh envenomation. The findings also provide a deeper insight into venom variations due to geography, which is crucial for the development of a useful pan-regional antivenom.

opencc-zeroDec 2012View details →

Data from: Echidna venom gland transcriptome provides insights into the evolution of monotreme venom

Monotremes (echidna and platypus) are egg-laying mammals. One of their most unique characteristic is that males have venom/crural glands that are seasonally active. Male platypuses produce venom during the breeding season, delivered via spurs, to aid in competition against other males. Echidnas are not able to erect their spurs, but a milky secretion is produced by the gland during the breeding season. The function and molecular composition of echidna venom is as yet unknown. Hence, we compared the deeply sequenced transcriptome of an in-season echidna crural gland to that of a platypus and searched for putative venom genes to provide clues into the function of echidna venom and the evolutionary history of monotreme venom. We found that the echidna venom gland transcriptome was markedly different from the platypus with no correlation between the top 50 most highly expressed genes. Four peptides found in the venom of the platypus were detected in the echidna transcriptome. However, these genes were not highly expressed in echidna, suggesting that they are the remnants of the evolutionary history of the ancestral venom gland. Gene ontology terms associated with the top 100 most highly expressed genes in echidna, showed functional terms associated with steroidal and fatty acid production, suggesting that echidna "venom" may play a role in scent communication during the breeding season. The loss of the ability to erect the spur and other unknown evolutionary forces acting in the echidna lineage resulted in the gradual decay of venom components and the evolution of a new role for the crural gland.

Fig. 13 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 13. Ultrastructure of the reproductive apparatus of Cynipini.(A, B) Volume rendered micrographs of accessory gland of the agamic generation of Disholcaspis quercusmamma confocal images stained with phalloidin (actin), revealing smooth muscles cells, and Hoescht (blue), revealing nuclei. (C)Transmission electron micrograph of a smooth muscle cell on the accessory gland of the agamic generation of Acraspis macrocarpae. (D, E) Confocal images of an accessory gland of D. quercusmamma stained with Hoescht (DNA) and Nile Red (lipid). (F) Transmission electron micrograph of the accessory gland of A. macrocarpae. (G–I) Confocal images of: (G, H) an accessory sac and (I) an oviduct of D. quercusmamma with Hoescht and Nile Red staining. Legend: N: nucleus, f: muscle fiber, m: mitochondria, lv: lipid vesicle.

Fig. 14 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 14. Ovariole anatomy of various Cynipids. Ovarioles of 19 species belonging to five tribes, with insets showing the egg development stage. M: mature egg, D: developing egg, Ga.: galler species, and In.: inquiline species. Square colors correspond to tribe colors introduced in Fig. 2.

Fig. 11 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 11. Relative size of the accessory apparatus in Cynipoids.Accessory sac diameter relative to metasoma length, with the name of the species with the highest ratio.The ratios of (A) accessory sac area over metasoma area and (B) accessory gland length over metasoma length for each species dissected.The dendrogram is adapted from Blaimer et al. (2020).The band indicates the species lifestyle (galler or inquiline) and the generation for Cynipini (sexual, agamic, or unknown). The dot colors in (A) correspond to the cynipoid tribes displayed in the dendrogram in (B).

Fig. 9 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 9. Ultrastructure of Cynipini venom glands. (A) Transversal section of a venom gland of the agamic generation of Disholcaspis quercusmamma, obtained with confocal microscope and stained with Hoechst (DNA) and phalloidin (actin). S: nuclei of secretory cells; L: lumen; white arrow: nuclei of ductule cells. (B, C) Volume rendered micrographs of D. quercusmamma agamic generation venom gland. (B) Secretory cell nuclei (blue) and end apparati (represented by red actin canals), with a subfigure showing the proximity between the nuclei and the secretory region. (C) End apparati of secretory cells, with a subfigure showing the curvature of the secretory region.Yellow: lumen. (D, E) Surface rendered micrographs of A. erinacei agamic generation venom gland obtained by serial block face scanning electron microscopy (D: top view, E: lateral view).The subfigures show the connections between the subcellular elements. Red: end apparatus; green: duct; yellow: lumen; blue: secretory cell nuclei; and purple: ductule cell nuclei.

Fig. 10 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 10. Transmission electron micrographs of the venom gland secretory region of Cynipoids. (A, A′) Disholcaspis quercusmamma agamic generation. (B, B′) Acraspis erinacei agamic generation. (C, C′) Amphibolips confluenta sexual generation. (D, D′, D") Diastrophus nebulosus. (E, E′) Antistrophus laciniatus. (F) Synergus sp. (G) Schematic summarizing the organization of the venom secretory unit inferred from TEM images. The extracellular medium of the 3 tested Cynipini contain high concentrations of nanometric particles. In D. quercusmamma, these particles (P1) are also found in secretory vesicles and seem to assemble into fibers once secreted. In A. erinacei, some secretory vesicles are observed, without particle content, whereas no vesicle are clearly visible in A. confluenta. In this last species, secretory units are surrounded by large granules. In Diastrophus nebulosus, nanometric particles seems to assemble into a 250 nm particle (P2) within secretory vesicles. Once secreted these P2 seem to form larger agglomerations. Lamellar bodies are also secreted in this species. The secretory unit is reduced and surrounded by light vesicles that do not contain any particles in the inquiline Synergus sp. An accumulation of vesicles and granules is observed around the secretory unit of A. laciniatus. In comparison, virus-like particles are secreted in Leptopilina sp. (adapted from Ferrarese et al., 2009). Legend: d: duct, e: extracellular medium, v: vesicle, mv: microvilli, g: granules, P1: 50 nm particle, P2: 250 nm particle, L: lamellar body, VLP: viruslike particle, p40: virus-like particle protein p40. Scale bar = 2 μm.

Fig. 12 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 12. Reproductive apparatus anatomy of various Cynipids. Scale bar = 0.5 mm. Ovaries and accessory glands of 8 species belonging to three tribes, with insets showing the detail of the accessory sacs when necessary. Green arrow: accessory sacs, pink arrow: ovary extremity, and yellow dashed line: accessory gland.

Fig. 8 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 8. Evolutionary pattern of the venom apparatus relative size in Cynipoids. Phenograms depicting the relative size of the venom gland on the left (ratio venom gland length over metasoma length) and the relative size of venom reservoir on the right (ratio venom reservoir area over metasoma area), with indication of the four gall-inducing clades.The phenograms are based on a time calibrated phylogeny of Cynipoidea (Blaimer et al. 2020, Ward et al. 2022), and phylogenetic tree tips are plotted according to their phenotypic value. A: agamic generation, S: sexual generation.

Fig. 7 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 7. Boxplots of the relative size of the venom apparatus in Cynipoids in relation to taxonomic group and life-history traits. This includes (A) lifestyle, (B) tribes, (C) plant tissue attacked among gallers, (D) number of larval chambers in the induced galls (uni- or multilocular), and, among Cynipini, (E) generation. Diplolepidini were excluded due to their absence of fully developed venom apparatus. Bars marked with a different letter indicate significant difference, NS indicates a non-significant difference (Tukey post hoc test, P ≤ 0.05).

Fig. 6 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 6. Divergent appearances of Cynipid wasp venoms.The variable venom coloration in the sexual generation of the genus Amphibolips, ranging from light yellow in most species to dark brown in A. acuminata (first line). Other venom coloration observed in gall wasps (middle line).The agamic generation was dissected for Kokkocynips imbricariae and Atrusca unica. For Callirhytis seminator, A: agamic generation, S: sexual generation, Anti.: Antistrophus.The needle crystals found in the venom reservoir of Andricus robustus (bottom line).

Fig. 5 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 5. Venom apparatus anatomy representative of different Cynipid tribes. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.White arrow: insertion point of the reservoir into the ovipositor; red arrow: insertion point of the gland into the reservoir.The insert for Antistrophus silphii shows the detail of the reservoir morphology, with division between the narrow region (NR) and the large region (LR).

Fig. 4 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 4. Relative size of the venom apparatus in Cynipoids. (A) Venom gland length relative to metasoma length, with the names of the species having the largest venom gland over metasoma ratio indicated. (B) Venom reservoir area relative to metasoma area, with the names of the species having the largest venom reservoir over metasoma ratio indicated. (C) The ratios of venom reservoir area over metasoma area, and venom gland length over metasoma length for each species dissected.The dendrogram is adapted from Blaimer et al. (2020). For venom gland graphs, the dashed lines correspond to the venom gland length equaling the metasoma size, and to the reservoir area equaling 5% of the metasoma area for venom reservoir graphs.The central band indicates the species lifestyle (galler, inquiline, or parasitoid) and the generation for Cynipini (sexual, agamic, or unknown).The colors carry through from (A)–(C) and indicate the cynipoid tribes outlined in (C). Ceropt. = Ceroptrini, Diastrop. = Diastrophini, Diplo. = Diplolepidini, G. = Galler, Inq. = Inquiline, ND = Not dissected.

Fig. 3 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 3. Anatomy of the metasoma of the agamic female of Disholcaspis quercusmamma (Cynipini). (A) Photograph of the adult of the agamic generation. (B) Exocrine and reproductive organs of the metasoma studied in this article. (C–E) Reconstructed internal structures of the metasoma using micro-tomography. (C) Right-lateral view. (D) Detail of the venom apparatus in lateral view. e) Detail of the accessory gland complex in dorsal view. Legend: red arrow: insertion point of the gland into the reservoir; orange, venom gland; purple, venom reservoir; yellow, accessory gland; dark blue, accessory sac; green, ovaries; and light blue, gut. Axis: D, dorsal;V, ventral; A, anterior; P, posterior; L, left; R, right. Scale bar: 1 mm.

Fig. 2 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 2. Examples of oviposition in Cynipidae. Unidentified Cynipini wasps laying eggs (A) in the secondary vein of a red oak (Quercus rubra) and (B) in the bud of a white oak (Quercus alba). (C) Inquiline cynipid wasp (Ceroptres sp.) laying eggs into the petiole gall of the sexual generation of Melikaiella tumifica on Q. rubra. (D) Diplolepis nodulosa (Diplolepidini) ovipositing in a rose bud.

Fig. 1 in Comparative anatomy of venom glands suggests a role of maternal secretions in gall induction by cynipid wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Fig. 1. Diversity of galls induced by Cynipid wasps. Four clades of Cynipidae contain gall-inducing species: the rose-gallers (Diplolepidini), the herb gallers (Aylacini sensu lato), the non-rose Rosaceae gallers (Diastrophini), and the oak gallers (Cynipidini). Cynipidini alternate two generations, sexual and agamic, that differ in their phenotype. Cynipid galls can be induced in various organs (bud, flower, fruit, leaf, root, or stem), and contain one larval chamber (unilocular gall) or several (multilocular gall). Photo credits:Tom Murray (Disholcaspis quercusmamma), Matthew Wills (Acraspis erinacei), Jeremy Collison (Amphibolips confluenta), Bill MacIndewar (Callirhytis quercusfutilis), Jeff Skrentny (Antistrophis silphii), and Erin Faulkner (Diplolepis bicolor).

publicOct 2014View details →

Data from: Echidna venom gland transcriptome provides insights into the evolution of monotreme venom

Open the record for dataset details and reuse information.