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Fig. 5 in A geometric morphometric study of the wing shapes of Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) from the Qinling Mountains and adjacent regions: An environmental and distance-based consideration

Fig. 5. Hind wing shape variation (CV1: 50.41%; CV2: 15.49%). The colored circles in the image above represent the average discrete point center of populations; the number is the population ID. Thin-plate spline analysis results are shown by colored grid, which represents wing shape deformation. The numbers on the grid are landmarks of wings. Blue color denotes contraction between landmarks, and red color indicates expansion between landmarks. The North group and South group correspond to the boundary of Qinling Mountains as the boundary between northern and southern China.

Fig. 4 in A geometric morphometric study of the wing shapes of Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) from the Qinling Mountains and adjacent regions: An environmental and distance-based consideration

Fig. 4. Forewing shape variation (CV1: 46.68%; CV2: 14.88%). The colored circles in the image above represent the average discrete point centers of populations; the number is the population ID. Thin-plate spline analysis results are shown by colored grid, which represents wing shape deformation. The numbers on the grid are landmarks of wings. Blue colored notes contraction between landmarks, and red color indicates expansion between landmarks. The North group and South group correspond to the boundary of Qinling Mountains as the boundary between northern and southern China.

Fig. 1 in A geometric morphometric study of the wing shapes of Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) from the Qinling Mountains and adjacent regions: An environmental and distance-based consideration

Fig. 1. Distribution map of the P. rapae populations studied and the integrated physical regionalization (diverse environments) in the Qinling Mountains and adjacent regions. Note: The numbers represent the IDs of the populations; the circles and groups represent the populations divided by the cluster analysis from Fig. 6.

Fig. 3 in A geometric morphometric study of the wing shapes of Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) from the Qinling Mountains and adjacent regions: An environmental and distance-based consideration

Fig. 3. Boxplot of P. rapae centroid size (CS) with the mean, standard error, and standard deviation illustrating variations in wing size across geographical populations.

Fig. 6 in A geometric morphometric study of the wing shapes of Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) from the Qinling Mountains and adjacent regions: An environmental and distance-based consideration

Fig. 6. UPGMA tree of P. rapae forewing and hind wing among different populations, based on Euclidian distances between mean wing shapes. The cluster numbers are population IDs (see Table 1).The groups are divided by Euclidian distances, i.e., the forewing divided by a linkage distance at 0.0027 and the hind wing by a linkage distance at 0.0038.

Fig. 7 in Wing shape is influenced by environmental variability in Polietina orbitalis (Stein) (Diptera: Muscidae)

Fig. 7. Comparison between the PLS analysis (with elevation) and CVA (CV1) showing that individuals with a wider wing phenotype occur in populations living at a maximum elevation of 700 m (A) and those with a thinner wing phenotype occur at elevations over 900 m (B). Localities are as follows: 1. Mbaracayú, 2. Fênix, 3. Jundiaí do Sul, 4. Guarapuava, 5. Ponta Grossa and 6. Colombo.

Fig. 6 in Wing shape is influenced by environmental variability in Polietina orbitalis (Stein) (Diptera: Muscidae)

Fig. 6. Results of the PLS analysis, with Colombo (6), Guarapuava (4) and Ponta Grossa (5) showing negative values and Fênix (2), Jundiaí do Sul (3) and Mbaracayú (1) showing positive values.

Fig. 5 in Wing shape is influenced by environmental variability in Polietina orbitalis (Stein) (Diptera: Muscidae)

Fig. 5. Graphic reconstruction of the wing shape of individuals with (A) positive and (B) negative scores on the second canonical axis (CV2, increased 10 times). The lines in gray represent the average configuration, and those in black represent the second canonical variable.

Fig. 2 in Wing shape is influenced by environmental variability in Polietina orbitalis (Stein) (Diptera: Muscidae)

Fig. 2. Dorsal side of the right wing of P. orbitalis showing (A) the 15 (numbered points) anatomical landmarks and (B) the general shape of the wing based on their positions.

Fig. 1. Map showing sites where P in Wing shape is influenced by environmental variability in Polietina orbitalis (Stein) (Diptera: Muscidae)

Fig. 1. Map showing sites where P. orbitalis populations were collected: 1. Mbaracayú (25◦17Ɩ S, 54◦49Ɩ W) in Paraguay and 2. Fênix (23◦54Ɩ S, 51◦58Ɩ W), 3. Jundiaí do Sul (23◦26Ɩ S, 50◦14Ɩ W), 4. Guarapuava (25◦23Ɩ S, 51◦ 27Ɩ W), 5. Ponta Grossa (25◦ 05Ɩ S, 50◦ 09Ɩ W) and 6. Colombo (25◦17Ɩ S, 49◦13Ɩ W) in Brazil.

opencc-by-4.0Dec 2014View details →

Text-fig. 7. Cercidiphyllaceae 1–3. Trochodendroides genetrix (NEWBERRY) comb. nov. and associated reproductive structures (4, 5) from Killpecker Cr., Rock Springs, Wyoming (UF loc. 18126). 1. Twig with three attached leaves, showing variation in leaf shape and serration; composite figure assembled from images of both counterparts, UF 35427. 2. Complete leaf including petiole, UF 13243. 3. Same as 2, detail of venation. 4. Nyssidium arcticum (HEER) ILJINSKAYA fruits on an incomplete axis, UF 35454. 5. Dispersed winged seed, UF 35479. Scale = 3 cm in 1, 2; 1 cm in 3, 4; 0.5 cm in 5. in Revisions To Roland Brown'S North American Paleocene Flora

Text-fig. 7. Cercidiphyllaceae 1–3. Trochodendroides genetrix (NEWBERRY) comb. nov. and associated reproductive structures (4, 5) from Killpecker Cr., Rock Springs, Wyoming (UF loc. 18126). 1. Twig with three attached leaves, showing variation in leaf shape and serration; composite figure assembled from images of both counterparts, UF 35427. 2. Complete leaf including petiole, UF 13243. 3. Same as 2, detail of venation. 4. Nyssidium arcticum (HEER) ILJINSKAYA fruits on an incomplete axis, UF 35454. 5. Dispersed winged seed, UF 35479. Scale = 3 cm in 1, 2; 1 cm in 3, 4; 0.5 cm in 5.

opencc-zeroApr 2024View details →

Evolution of wing shape in geometrid moths: phylogenetic effects dominate over ecology

Locomotory performance is an important determinant of fitness in most animals, including flying insects. Strong selective pressures on wing morphology are therefore expected. Previous studies on wing shape in Lepidoptera have found some support for hypotheses relating wing shape to environment-specific selective pressures on aerodynamic performance. Here, we present a phylogenetic comparative study on wing shape in the lepidopteran family Geometridae, covering all 374 species of the northern European fauna. We focused on eleven wing traits including aspect ratio, wing roundness, and the pointedness of the apex, as well as the ratio of forewing and hindwing areas. All measures were taken from images available on the internet, using a combination of tools available in Fiji software and in R. We found that wing shape demonstrates a phylogenetically conservative pattern of evolution in Geometridae, showing similar or greater phylogenetic signal than many of its potential predictors. Several wing traits showed statistically significant associations with predictors such as body size, flight phenology, and preference for forest habitats. Overall, however, all of these associations remained notably weak, with no wing shape being excluded for any value of the predictors, including body size. We conclude that, in geometrids, wing traits do not readily respond to selective pressures optimising aerodynamic performance of the moths in different environments. Selection on wing shape may nevertheless operate through other functions of the wings, with the effectiveness of crypsis at rest being a promising candidate for further studies.

opencc-zeroDec 2021View details →

Evolution of body size and wing shape trade-offs in arsenurine silkmoths

One of the key objectives in biological research is understanding how evolutionary processes have produced Earth's diversity. A critical step towards revealing these processes is an investigation of evolutionary tradeoffs – that is, the opposing pressures of multiple selective forces. For millennia, nocturnal moths have had to balance successful flight, as they search for mates or host plants, with evading bat predators. However, the potential for evolutionary trade-offs between wing shape and body size are poorly understood. In this study, we used phylogenomics and geometric morphometrics to examine the evolution of wing shape in the wild silkmoth subfamily Arsenurinae (Saturniidae) and evaluate potential evolutionary relationships between body size and wing shape. The phylogeny was inferred based on 782 loci from target capture data of 42 arsenurine species representing all 10 recognized genera. After detecting in our data one of the most vexing problems in phylogenetic inference – a region of a tree that possesses short branches and no "support" for relationships (i.e., a polytomy), we looked for hidden phylogenomic signal (i.e., inspecting differing phylogenetic inferences, alternative support values, quartets, and phylogenetic networks) to better illuminate the most probable generic relationships within the subfamily. We found there are putative evolutionary trade-offs between wing shape, body size, and the interaction of fore- and hindwing shape. Namely, body size tends to decrease with increasing hindwing length but increases as forewing shape becomes more complex. Additionally, the type of hindwing (i.e., tail or no tail) a lineage possesses has a significant effect on the complexity of forewing shape. We outline possible selective forces driving the complex hindwing shapes that make Arsenurinae, and silkmoths as a whole, so charismatic.

opencc-zeroJun 2022View details →

Community science reveals links between migration arrival timing advance, migration distance, and wing shape

Substantial global data show that many taxa are shifting their phenologies in response to climate change. For birds, migration arrival dates in breeding regions have been shifting earlier, and there is evidence that both evolutionary adaptation and behavioural flexibility influence these shifts. As more efficient flyers may be able to demonstrate more flexibility to respond to changing conditions during migratory flight, we hypothesize that differences among passerine species in flight efficiency, as reflected by morphology, may be associated with the magnitude of shifts in arrival date in response to climate warming. We applied a logistic model to eighteen years of eBird data to estimate mean arrival date for 44 common passerines migrating to northeast North America. We then used linear mixed-effects models to estimate changes in mean arrival date and compared these changes to morphological proxies for flight efficiency and migratory distance using phylogenetic generalized least squares models. On average, passerine species shifted their arrival dates 0.120 days earlier each year, with 27 of the 44 species shifting to significantly earlier arrival times, and two shifting to significantly later ones. Of the 15 species with non-significant shifts, 13 trended toward earlier arrivals. Longer migration distances and higher wing aspect ratios were associated with greater shifts towards earlier arrivals. Migration distance and aspect ratio were also significantly correlated to each other. This suggests that changes in arrival date are affected by factors pertaining to migratory flight over long distances namely, flight efficiency and migration distance. These traits may be able predict the magnitude of arrival date shift, and by extension identify species that are most at risk to climate change due to inflexible arrival timing.

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Fig. 2 in A geometric morphometric study of the wing shapes of Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) from the Qinling Mountains and adjacent regions: An environmental and distance-based consideration

Fig. 2. Distribution of landmarks on P. rapae forewing and hind wing.