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Pollination ecology, specialization, and genetic isolation in sympatric bee pollinated Salvia (Lamiaceae)
<p><i>Premise of research.</i><i> </i>Previous pollination ecology studies in <i>Salvia</i> have shown that there is low specialization to certain subgroups of bees and that pollinator number varies with species and locality. We studied twelve <i>Salvia</i> species (three clades with different corolla morphologies and staminal lever mechanisms) which in part co-occur and co-flower to examine pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms and the degree of specialization vs. generalization in pollination ecology.</p> <p><span><i>Methodology.</i> Pollinators were identified using field observations, photos, and related literature across three sites in Turkey. Video documentation of the visitation rate and the site of pollen placement on the pollinator body, morphometric measurements between flowers and pollinators, flowering time, flower color, handling time, and stigma contact ratio were analyzed. Plant-pollinator networks were constructed.</span></p> <p><i>Pivotal results.</i> Mechanical, phenological, and ethological isolation occur among sympatric <i>Salvia</i> species. Morphological fit is evident between flower tube length and proboscis length of main pollinators. Pollinator networks indicate that most species are ecological generalists but only few are specialists.</p> <p><i>Conclusions.</i> The twelve <i>Salvia</i> species, though phenotypically and functionally specialized due to their zygomorphic-bilabiate flowers and bee pollination syndrome, differ in the degree of ecological specialization. Most of the sympatric <i>Salvia </i>species tend to be ecologically generalized with two or more main pollinators and a few additional secondary pollinators, while a few <i>Salvia </i>species are clearly specialized. Some floral traits (e.g., flower color, morphology, size, corolla tube length and width of corolla tube entrance, type and size of the staminal lever mechanism, small numbers of flowers in the inflorescence), short flowering time, and small population size appear correlated to the degree of ecological specialization.</p>
FIG. 4 in Age structure and growth in an isolated population of Pelodytes punctatus in northern Spain
FIG. 4. Growth in length body (SVL) of P. punctatus in Burgos, Spain. Mean and range are given at each age. Curves fitted to the Von Bertalanffy equation.
FIG. 1 in Age structure and growth in an isolated population of Pelodytes punctatus in northern Spain
FIG. 1. Cross-sections at the diaphysis of phalanges for P. punctatus in Burgos, Spain. (A) Male, 40.3 mm SVL, six LAGs; (B) female, 45.5 mm SVL, five LAGs. Arrows, LAGs; ml, metamorphosis line; eb, endosteal bone.
FIG. 3 in Age structure and growth in an isolated population of Pelodytes punctatus in northern Spain
FIG. 3. Snout–vent length distribution of P. punctatus in Burgos, Spain. Black bars, males; grey bars, females.
Figure 3 in Contemporary genetic structure reflects historical drainage isolation in an Australian snapping turtle, Elseya albagula
Figure 3. Bayesian population assignments for Elseya albagula individuals based on 12 microsatellite loci analysed in STRUCTURE, indicating structure by region and catchment. Individuals are represented by coloured vertical bars, which represent per cent genetic membership (y axis) within genetic units as indicated above each diagram. A, individual differentiation between two regional units (K = 2), and B, further substructuring amongst catchments within the southern region (K = 3). Black lines separate sampling locations, identified below (x axis). B, Burnett, F, Fitzroy; M, Mary.
Figure 3 in Isolation by geographical distance after release from Pleistocene refugia explains genetic and phenotypic variation in Xylotrupes siamensis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
Figure 3. Phylogenetic networks of the three analysed loci and three historical scenarios explaining the origin of the CLAOS population tested using the DIYABC program. The colour of each individual shown in the network corresponds to the taxonomic assignment colour in the DIYABC analysis. Scenario 2 was the most likely model selected by the program (~60% posterior support), and scenario 1 also received moderate support (~30% posterior support). Results of posterior support among scenarios and model checking, in addition to the estimated parameter values (population sizes and divergence times), can be found in the Supporting Information (Figs S3–S8).
Figure 1 in Isolation by geographical distance after release from Pleistocene refugia explains genetic and phenotypic variation in Xylotrupes siamensis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
Figure 1. Different male horn phenotypes in Xylotrupes siamensis. Left panels show exemplars of males of the Tonkinensis (short horn) phenotypes and right panels the Siamensis (long horn with a cephalic horn denticle) phenotype. Samples from the CLAOS population (for details, see Table 1; Fig. 2) exhibit intermediate horn length, and the major males have the cephalic horn denticle.
Figure 4 in Isolation by geographical distance after release from Pleistocene refugia explains genetic and phenotypic variation in Xylotrupes siamensis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
Figure 4. Associations between three biogeographical distance measures and genetic differentiation (FST), measured at three loci (CO1, ITS2 and H3), for populations of Xylotrupes siamensis. Mantel test statistics (r) indicate the strength and significance of correlations between the genetic distance and biogeographical distance. Distance calculations are detailed in the Material and Methods section. Least cost distances were subject to rescaling and are thus unitless.
Figure 2. A in Isolation by geographical distance after release from Pleistocene refugia explains genetic and phenotypic variation in Xylotrupes siamensis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
Figure 2. A, the sampling sites of Xylotrupes siamensis populations in this study. White circles indicate samples of the Tonkinensis form and grey circles the Siamensis form. The Mekong River is indicated using a thick grey line; elevational differences are shown via a coloured scale, where a lighter colour depicts higher elevation (maximum = 4000 m a.s.l.). B, location of the study area within the Asia–Pacific region. C–E, species distribution model predictions based on the Last Interglacial (C), the Last Glacial Maximum (D) and current climatic conditions (E) are shown, where darker blue indicates higher predicted climatic suitability.
FIGURE 2 in Diplodia parva sp. nov., a novel species of the family Botryosphaeriaceae isolated from soil in Korea
FIGURE 2. Cultural and morphological characteristics of Diplodia parva KNU16-007. A, B and C, pycnidia on pine needle; D, conidiophore; E, front and reverse view of the colony on PDA; F, front and reverse view of the colony on MEA; G, conidiogenous cells; H, conidia. Scale bars: A, B = 100 µm; C, D, G, H = 10 µm.
FIGURE 3 in Diplodia parva sp. nov., a novel species of the family Botryosphaeriaceae isolated from soil in Korea
FIGURE 3. Neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree based on the concatenated ITS and TEF1-α sequences showing the phylogenetic position of Diplodia parva KNU16-007 among the Diplodia species. Bootstrap values (based on 1000 replications) greater than 60% are shown at branch points. Filled circles indicate that the corresponding nodes were also recovered in trees generated using the maximum-likelihood and maximum-parsimony algorithms. Open circles indicate that the corresponding nodes were also recovered in the tree generated using the maximum-likelihood or maximum-parsimony algorithm. The isolated strain is shown in bold. Lasiodiplodia theobromae CBS 164.96 was used as an outgroup. Bar, 0.01 substitutions per nucleotide position.
FIGURE 1 in Pinocchia daecheonga sp. nov. (Synechococcales, Cyanobacteria) isolated from a Daecheong Lake in Geum River, Republic of Korea
FIGURE 1. Map showing site in the Daecheong Lake in Geum River, Republic of Korea. (A) The red circle is a sample site, and (B) the habitat view of a collection site.
FIGURE 2 in Pinocchia daecheonga sp. nov. (Synechococcales, Cyanobacteria) isolated from a Daecheong Lake in Geum River, Republic of Korea
FIGURE 2. Microphotographs of Pinocchia daecheonga from the reference strain FBCC-A230. (A, C) Colonies (mats) formed in culture, (B) Thin sheath surrounding trichomes (arrow), (D) Hyaline bridges at cross walls (arrows), (E–G) Various types of trichomes in culture, (H) Trichomes with elongated terminal cell (arrows), (I) The enlarged trichome after 4 weeks of culture; Scale bars 5 µm.
FIGURE 4. A in Pinocchia daecheonga sp. nov. (Synechococcales, Cyanobacteria) isolated from a Daecheong Lake in Geum River, Republic of Korea
FIGURE 4. A Maximum likelihood tree based on 16S rRNA gene (1,034 bp) sequences showing the clustering of cultured Pinocchia daecheonga isolates. Phylogenetic relationships of cyanobacteria species within the order Synechococcales (including family Leptolyngbyaceae, Oculatellaceae, Pseudanabaenaceae) and order Oscillatoriales inferred from nearly complete 16S rRNA gene sequences with the Neighbor Joining (NJ) and Bayesian analysis. Numbers above branches indicate bootstrap support (> 50%) in ML, NJ analysis and posterior probabilities (PP;> 0.50) in Bayesian analysis. P. daecheonga studied here marks in bolds. Gloeobacter violaceus PCC 7421 and G. kilaueensis JS1 within the family Gloeobacteraceae were used as the out group. In Pinocchia clade, ten clones of P. polymorpha refer to E5/1, E5/2, E5/4, E5/5, E5/6 and E(10/1-5), five isolates or clones of P. daecheonga to FBCC-A230, and FBCC-A230 clone 1, 2, 3, 4.
Figure 30. Isolated right dentary. A in Cranial osteology and preliminary phylogenetic assessment of Plectrurus aureus Beddome, 1880 (Squamata: Serpentes: Uropeltidae)
Figure 30. Isolated right dentary. A, right-lateral view, anterior to the right. B, right-medial view, anterior to the left. Abbreviations: antf, anterior opening of Meckel's canal; Mklc, Meckel's canal; mtlf, mental foramen; pdp, posterodorsal process. Scale bar: 1 mm.
Figure 22. Isolated parietal. A, anterior view. B in Cranial osteology and preliminary phylogenetic assessment of Plectrurus aureus Beddome, 1880 (Squamata: Serpentes: Uropeltidae)
Figure 22. Isolated parietal. A, anterior view. B, rightlateral view, anterior to the right. Abbreviations: sag, sagittal crest; sop, supraorbital process; V2f, fenestra for the V2 branch of the trigeminal nerve; vlf, ventrolateral flange. Scale bar: 1 mm.
Figure 8. Isolated maxilla. A in Cranial osteology and preliminary phylogenetic assessment of Plectrurus aureus Beddome, 1880 (Squamata: Serpentes: Uropeltidae)
Figure 8. Isolated maxilla. A, dorsal view, anterior to the right. B, right-lateral view, anterior to the right. C, rightmedial view, anterior to the left. Abbreviations: amp, anteromedial process; asp, ascending process; ep, ectopterygoid process; plp, palatine process; sanc, superior alveolar nerve canal. Scale bar: 1 mm.
Figure 32. Isolated right compound bone. A in Cranial osteology and preliminary phylogenetic assessment of Plectrurus aureus Beddome, 1880 (Squamata: Serpentes: Uropeltidae)
Figure 32. Isolated right compound bone. A, right-lateral view, anterior to the right. B, right-medial view, anterior to the left. Abbreviations: cop, coronoid process; ctf, foramen for the chorda tympani; ldp, lateral dentary process; mdbc, mandibular canal; mdbf, mandibular fossa; mdp, medial dentary process; mj, mandibular joint; rap, retroarticular process. Scale bar: 1 mm.
Figure 24. Isolated otico-occipital complex. A, anterior view. B in Cranial osteology and preliminary phylogenetic assessment of Plectrurus aureus Beddome, 1880 (Squamata: Serpentes: Uropeltidae)
Figure 24. Isolated otico-occipital complex. A, anterior view. B, posterior view. Abbreviations: cer, cerebral carotid; ct, anterior end of the ossified crista trabecularis; ef, endolymphatic foramen; fpsr, foramen pseudorotunda; ik, interchoanal keel; ip, interchoanal process; jsr, juxtastapedial recess; ls, laterosphenoid; oc, occipital condyle; pavc, primary anterior opening of the vidian canal; Rc, Rieppel's canal; savc, secondary anterior opening of the vidian canal; st, stapes; tfc, trigeminofacialis chamber; VI, cranial nerve six; XII, hypoglossal foramen. Scale bar: 1 mm.
Figure 20. Isolated frontal. A, anterior view. B in Cranial osteology and preliminary phylogenetic assessment of Plectrurus aureus Beddome, 1880 (Squamata: Serpentes: Uropeltidae)
Figure 20. Isolated frontal. A, anterior view. B, rightlateral view, anterior to the right. C, right-medial view, anterior to the left. Abbreviations: opf, optic foramen; otc, olfactory tract canal; palp, palatal process; por, preorbital ridge; sog, groove for the supraorbital process of the parietal. Scale bar: 1 mm.
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Allen Brain Atlas
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