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Host population effects on ectomycorrhizal fungi

Geographic distinctions in the affinity of tree populations for select ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) may occur where strong edaphic pressures act on fungal communities and their hosts. We examine this premise for Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii of southwest British Columbia, using ten native seedlots collected from a range of mean annual precipitation (MAP), as a proxy for podzolization extent and phosphorus (P) deficiencies, and evaluated in contrasting low P and high P soils. After two growing seasons, seedling biomass in the high P soil dwarfed that of the low P soil, and better growth rates under high P were detected for populations from very dry and very wet origins. EMF communities on the high P soil displayed more symmetry among host populations than the low P soil (average community dissimilarity of 0.20% vs 0.39%, respectively). Seedling foliar P% differed slightly but significantly in relation to MAP of origin. EMF species richness varied significantly among host populations but independently of climatic parameters. There were significant shifts in EMF species abundance related to seedlot MAP, particularly on the low P soil where nonlinear relationships were found for Wilcoxina mikolae, Hyaloscypha finlandica, and Rhizopogon villosulus. Despite efforts to enhance colonization by native fungi, the predominance of ruderal EMF species hindered a realistic evaluation of local adaptation among host-fungi populations. Nevertheless, the shifting affinity in taxa abundance and wider community disparity on low P soil reflected the potential for a consequential host genetic effect related to geographical patterns in P availability across temperate rainforests

Data for: Cytogeography of naturalized Solidago canadensis populations in Europe

Autopolyploidization has driven the successful invasion of Solidago canadensis in East Asia. However, it was believed that only diploid S. canadensis invaded Europe, whereas polyploids never did. In this study, we aim to investigate whether polyploidy S. canadensis invaded Europe and compare the ecological niche differentiation pattern driven by ploidy in Asia and Europe and North America.Here, molecular identification (combination of ribosomal ITS and psbA-trnH intergenic spacer), ploidy level, and morphological traits of ten S. canadensis populations collected in Europe were compared with previously identified S. canadensis populations from other continents and S. altissima populations. Furthermore, the ploidy-driven geographical differentiation pattern of S. canadensis in different continents was investigated. Results showed that all ten European populations were identified as S. canadensis with five diploid and five hexaploid populations. Significant differences in morphological traits existed among diploids and polyploids (tetraploids and hexaploids), rather than between polyploids from different introduced ranges and between S. altissima and polyploidy S. canadensis populations. The invasive hexaploids and diploids had few differences in latitudinal distributions in Europe which was similar to the native range but absolutely different from a distinct climate-niche differentiation in Asia. This may be attributed to the bigger difference in climate between Asia and Europe and North America.The above morphological and molecular evidences proved the invasion of polyploid S. canadensis in Europe and suggest that S. altissima may be merged into a complex of S. canadensis species. Our study may be concluded that geographical and ecological niche differentiation of an invasive plant driven by ploidy depends on the degree of difference in the environmental factors between the introduced range and the native range, which provides new insight into the invasive mechanism.

Experimental warming increases the vulnerability of high-elevation plant populations to a specialist herbivore

<ol> <li>Ongoing climate change may impact alpine plant populations via both direct effects of increased temperature and climate-driven changes in interactions between plants and other organisms, such as insect herbivores. Rates of herbivory in high-elevation environments are predicted to increase with warmer temperatures, which may also lead to changes in morphological and physiological traits that influence plant resistance. Yet, we currently know little about how temperature-mediated changes in traits will impact alpine plant vulnerability to herbivores, as well as the extent to which populations from high-elevation environments might need to rapidly adapt to increasing herbivore pressure with rising temperatures.</li> <li>We assessed the effect of experimental warming on the relative vulnerability of populations of the alpine plant Arabis alpina from different elevations to a specialist herbivore. Herbivore performance was measured on plants from nine populations grown in climate chambers at two temperatures, representing low (warm) and high (cold) elevations. We also measured changes in putative drivers of performance: plant phenological, chemical and defence traits. Assuming populations would be adapted to local climates and levels of herbivory, we predicted that low-elevation populations would be more resistant to herbivores under warmer temperatures than high-elevation populations.</li> <li>We found reduced performance of a specialist herbivore on A. alpina grown under warm rather than cold conditions, though this effect varied with elevation. Larvae grew faster on high-elevation populations than low-elevation populations when grown under warm temperatures, whereas similar growth rates were observed for plants grown under colder temperatures, consistent with plant adaptation to the lower existing herbivore pressure in cold, high-elevation environments. Regression analyses suggested that polar metabolite variation explained more variance in larval performance than changes in defensive glucosinolates or morphological traits.</li> <li>Our results suggest that although physiological responses to warming may increase the resistance of cold-adapted plants to herbivory, populations from different elevations may differ in their interactions with herbivores under climate warming. Without genetic adaptation, existing physiological responses of high-elevation populations to warmer temperatures may leave these populations vulnerable to the increases in herbivore pressure predicted under climate change.</li> </ol>

Open-population SCR model to estimate spatiotemporal variation in individual birth locations, detection rates, and survival

This is an open population SCR model developed by R. Chandler and K. Engebretsen. The full model incorporates 4 spatial covariates in birth location density submodel, 3 location-specific, temporal covariates in the detection submodel, and 4 spatial covariates in the survival submodel. Formatted data is provided for the 2015 and 2016 fawning season in south Florida and the model can be fit using the script fitFawnModel.R.

Data from: Differential gene expression and mitonuclear incompatibilities in fast- and slow-developing inter-population Tigriopus californicus hybrids

Mitochondrial functions are intimately reliant on proteins and RNAs encoded in both the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes, leading to inter-genomic coevolution within taxa. Hybridization can break apart coevolved mitonuclear genotypes, resulting in decreased mitochondrial performance and reduced fitness. This hybrid breakdown is an important component of outbreeding depression and early-stage reproductive isolation. However, the mechanisms contributing to mitonuclear interactions remain poorly resolved. Here we scored variation in developmental rate (a proxy for fitness) among reciprocal F2 inter-population hybrids of the intertidal copepod Tigriopus californicus, and used RNA sequencing to assess differences in gene expression between fast- and slow-developing hybrids. In total, differences in expression associated with developmental rate were detected for 2,925 genes, whereas only 135 genes were differentially expressed as a result of differences in mitochondrial genotype. Up-regulated expression in fast developers was enriched for genes involved in chitin-based cuticle development, oxidation-reduction processes, hydrogen peroxide catabolic processes, and mitochondrial respiratory chain complex I. In contrast, up-regulation in slow developers was enriched for DNA replication, cell division, DNA damage, and DNA repair. Eighty-four nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes were differentially expressed between fast- and slow-developing copepods, including twelve subunits of the electron transport system (ETS) which all had higher expression in fast developers than in slow developers. Nine of these genes were subunits of ETS complex I. Our results emphasize the major roles that mitonuclear interactions within the ETS, particularly in complex I, play in hybrid breakdown, and resolve strong candidate genes for involvement in mitonuclear interactions.

Effects of global change on bird and beetle populations in boreal forest landscape: an assemblage dissimilarity analysis

Aim Despite an increasing number of studies highlighting the impacts of climate change on boreal species, the main factors that will drive changes in species assemblages remain ambiguous. We study how species community composition would change following anthropogenic and natural disturbances. We determine the main drivers of assemblage dissimilarity for bird and beetle communities. Location Côte-Nord, Québec, Canada. Methods We quantify two climate-induced pathways based on direct and indirect effects on species occurrence under different harvest management scenarios. The direct climate effects illustrate the impact of climate variables while the indirect effects are reflected through habitat-based climate change. We develop empirical models to predict the distribution of more than 100 species over the next century. We analyze the regional and the latitudinal species assemblage dissimilarity by decomposing it into 'balanced variation in species occupancy and occurrence' and 'occupancy and occurrence gradient'. Results Both pathways increased dissimilarity in species assemblage. At the regional scale, both effects have an impact on decreasing the number of winning species. Yet, responses are much larger in magnitude under mixed climate effects (a mixture of direct and indirect effects). Regional assemblage dissimilarity reached 0.77 and 0.69 under mixed effects versus 0.09 and 0.10 under indirect effects for beetles and birds, respectively, between RCP8.5 and baseline climate scenarios when considering harvesting. Latitudinally, assemblage dissimilarity increased following the climate conditions pattern. Main conclusions The two pathways are complementary and alter biodiversity, mainly caused by species turnover. Yet, responses are much larger in magnitude under mixed climate effects. Therefore, the inclusion of climatic variables considers aspects other than just those related to forest landscapes, such as life cycles of animal species. Moreover, we expect differences in occupancy between the two studied taxa. This could indicate the potential range of change in boreal species concerning novel environmental conditions.

Data for: SNPs detected in pool-seq data from resistant and susceptible Cimex lectularius populations

In the last few years, the bed bug Cimex lectularius has been an increasing problem world-wide, mainly due to the development of insecticide resistance to pyrethroids. The characterization of resistance alleles is a prerequisite to improve surveillance and resistance management. To identify genomic variants associated with pyrethroid resistance in Cimex lectularius, we compared the genetic composition of two recent and resistant populations with that of two ancientsusceptible strains using a genome-wide pool-seq design. We identified a large 6 Mb "superlocus" showing particularly high genetic differentiation and association with the resistance phenotype. This superlocus contained several clustered resistance genes, andwas also characterized by a high density of structural variants (inversions, duplications). The possibility that this superlocus constitute a resistance "supergene" that evolved after the clustering of alleles adapted to insecticide and after reduction in recombination is discussed.

opencc-by-4.0Apr 2022View details →

Overwintering strategies and life-history traits of different populations of Aphidius platensis along a latitudinal gradient in Chile

The onset of an overwintering strategy to overcome cold temperatures of a species of ectotherms can include remaining active or entering diapause. This in turn will depend on the relative costs of each strategy and therefore, could differ among populations along a latitudinal gradient. Thus, expecting higher levels of diapause in the coldest conditions and a higher incidence of individuals remaining active in the warmest conditions. We assessed the insect responses to photoperiod and temperature, in five Chilean populations of the aphid parasitoid Aphidius platensis. We analysed the variation in winter temperature along the latitudinal gradient and, under controlled conditions, examining the potential effects of three constant conditions of photoperiod/temperature: 8:16LD (Light: Dark, hours) at 10°C, 10:14LD at 14°C, and 16:8LD at 20°C, on diapause levels. Finally, we measured cold tolerance (CTMin), developmental time, fresh body mass and size, fat and water content, and egg load for the emerging parasitoids. Our results showed no clear latitudinal gradient in temperature but differences among sites were clear. None of the five populations of A. platensis expressed diapause at any tested condition, suggesting that the environmental thresholds for diapause induction are perhaps not reached in this species under the studied latitudes. Insects from the coldest point in the gradient (Pinto) showed the lowest CTMin suggesting local adaptation. Moreover, physiological and life-history traits seem to adjust rapidly through developmental thermal acclimation, showing that plasticity is involved in the parasitoid’s responses to the temperature differences found among localities. Consequently, both local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity contribute to this species remaining active during the whole winter, being an effective strategy to diapause in relatively mild and stable thermal environments.

Population genomic structure in Goodman's mouse lemur reveals long-standing separation of Madagascar's Central Highlands and eastern rainforests

Madagascar's Central Highlands are largely composed of grasslands, interspersed with patches of forest. The pre-human extent of these grasslands is a topic of vigorous debate, with conventional wisdom holding that they are anthropogenic in nature and emerging evidence supporting that grasslands were a component of the pre-human Central Highlands vegetation. Here, we shed light on the temporal dynamics of Madagascar's vegetative composition by conducting a population genomic investigation of Goodman's mouse lemur (Microcebus lehilahytsara; Cheirogaleidae). These small-bodied primates occur both in Madagascar's eastern rainforests and in the Central Highlands, which makes them a valuable indicator species. Population divergences among forest-dwelling mammals can serve as a proxy for habitat fragmentation and patterns of post-divergence gene flow can reveal potential migration corridors consistent with a wooded grassland mosiac. We used RADseq data to infer phylogenetic relationships, population structure, demographic models of post-divergence gene flow, and population size change through time. These analyses offer evidence that open habitats are an ancient component of the Central Highlands, and that wide-spread forest fragmentation occurred naturally during a period of decreased precipitation near the last glacial maximum. Models of gene flow suggest that migration across the Central Highlands has been possible from the Pleistocene through the recent Holocene via riparian corridors. Notably, though our findings support the hypothesis that Central Highland grasslands predate human arrival, we also find evidence for human-mediated population declines. This highlights the extent to which species imminently threatened by human-mediated deforestation may be more vulnerable from paleoclimatic changes.

High population density and large body mass lead to increased reproductive success

Although population density and phenotype are known to alter the mating strategies of individuals, their impacts on reproductive success have not been fully investigated. We examined genetic mating system variation (number of mating partners), reproductive success (offspring number) and sperm competition intensity (sires per litter) in semi-natural populations of Brandt's voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii) under low-, medium- and high-densities. We used 12 microsatellite genetic markers and parentage assignment of 3,516 voles, with the aim of identifying the number of mating partners and offspring produced by founder individuals. We provided strong evidence that individuals with more mating partners experienced increased reproductive success, as measured by the production of more offspring, compared with individuals that had fewer mating partners. Further, we found that large males had more mating partners (especially in high-population density enclosures) and also produced more offspring relative to smaller males. A high density of founder individuals led to more sires per litter but greater paternity share across litters (reduced paternity skew). Our results suggest that a polygamous mating system and increased body size should be favored by natural selection, and density-dependent variation in mating strategy would be sufficient to stabilize reproductive fitness under unfavorable conditions such as high founding density.

Adaptive significance of affiliative behaviour differs between sexes in a wild reptile population

In recent years, we have begun to appreciate that social behaviours might exhibit repeatable among-individual variation. Such behavioural traits may even covary and have critical evolutionary implications. Importantly, some social behaviours such as aggressiveness have been shown to provide fitness benefits, including higher reproductive success and survival. However, fitness consequences of affiliative behaviours, especially between or among sexes, can be more challenging to establish. Using a longitudinal behavioural dataset (2014-2021) collected on eastern water dragons (Intellagama lesueurii), we investigated whether various aspects of affiliative behaviour (1) were repeatable across years, (2) covaried with each other at the among-individual level, and (3) influenced individuals' fitness. In particular, we considered affiliative behaviours towards opposite-sex and same-sex conspecifics separately. We found that social traits were repeatable and covaried with each other similarly for both sexes. More notably, we found that male reproductive success was positively correlated with the number of female associates and the proportion of time spent with females, whilst females' reproductive success was not correlated with any of the measured social behaviour metrics. Overall, these findings suggest that selection may be acting differently on social behaviour of male and female eastern water dragons.

opencc-by-4.0Apr 2023View details →

TARDIS configuration and emulator weights and training data for "1991T-Like Type Ia Supernovae as an Extension of the Normal Population"

This dataset contains two archives of data related to the paper "1991T-Like Type Ia Supernovae as an Extension of the Normal Population" The first dataset, <a href="https://zenodo.org/api/files/de696fe0-3280-44f2-8ef4-975b92fad260/TARDIS_Emulator_Config.tar.gz">TARDIS_Emulator_Config.tar.gz </a>, contains the atomic data used to run TARDIS and a template configuration file from which samples are generated including the flags for the physics implementation used. The second dataset, InferenceScripts.tar.gz, contains the trained probabilistic neural network, the training/validation data (Under NNData), and scripts used to train the model and load and evaluate the model.  Scripts that perform inference on spectra, as well as a folder of observed spectra (Under CorrectedSpectra), are included as well.  A conda environment yaml file is included to rebuild the Python environment required to run all of the scripts.  For questions please email John O'Brien.

opencc-zeroOct 2020View details →

FIG. 6 in Populations of a new morphotype of corrugate Lessonia Bory in the Beagle Channel, sub-Antarctic Magellanic ecoregion: a possible case of on-going speciation

FIG. 6. — MJ network of ITS1 haplotypes of Magellanic Lessonia Bory, spp. individuals.

Data from: Genetic mark-recapture analysis of winter faecal pellets allows estimation of population size in sage grouse Centrocercus urophasianus

Sex ratio, and the extent to which it varies over time, is an important factor in the demography, management, and conservation of wildlife populations. We estimated pre-breeding sex ratio of greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in a peripheral, geographically isolated population in northwestern Colorado during two consecutive winters using closed-population, robust-design, multi-state, genetic mark-recapture models in program MARK (White and Burnham 1999). This data release includes the data files (.inp format) used in those models, as described in Shyvers et al. 2023. The data include capture histories and auxiliary data for individual greater sage-grouse collected during two study seasons: Season 1 (winter 2012-2013) and Season 2 (winter 2013-2014) and are readable using program MARK or notepad. Each data row includes the unique bird identification number (GMR-ID); the bird's encounter history for n= sampling occasions coded as a static state (M = male, F = female); the group ID; and a region covariate (0 = North, 1 = South). The data were adapted from those originally developed for Shyvers et al. 2020 and applied using Closed Robust Design Multi-state (CRDMS) Huggins' p and c w/state probabilities in program MARK to obtain estimates of Omega, enabling estimation of sex ratio with associated confidence intervals (see Shyvers et al. 2023). References: Shyvers, J.E., Walker, B.L., Oyler-McCance, S.J., Fike, J.A. and Noon, B.R. 2023. Genetic mark-recapture analysis reveals large annual variation in pre-breeding sex ratio of greater sage-grouse. Wildlife Biology (https://doi.org/10.1002/wlb3.01085) Shyvers, J.E., Walker, B.L., Oyler‐McCance, S.J., Fike, J.A. and Noon, B.R., 2020. Genetic mark-recapture analysis of winter faecal pellets allows estimation of population size in Sage Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus. Ibis, 162(3), pp.749-765. White, G. C., and K. P. Burnham. 1999. Program Mark: survival estimation from populations of marked animals. – Bird Study 46:120–139.

opencc-by-4.0Apr 2023View details →

Persistent and occasional: searching for the variable population of the ZTF/4MOST sky using ZTF data release 11.

In this dataset we provide classifications of Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) Data Release 11 (DR11) light curves, from the work "Persistent and occasional: searching for the variable population of the ZTF/4MOST sky using ZTF data release 11", accepted for publication in the Astronomy and Astrophysics Journal (Sánchez-Sáez et al. 2023). Here we provide classifications for objects in the ZTF/4MOST sky, including 86,576,577 sources in the g band and 140,409,824 in the r band. The classifications are provided in parquet files, separated by class and ZTF band. We also provide the labeled sets used to train the models for each band, and the master catalog used to construct the labeled sets.   File description: Classifications: files with names %class%_cand_%band%.parquet.gz Labeled set g band: LS_ZTFg.parquet.gz Labeled set r band: LS_ZTFr.parquet.gz Master catalog: mast_cat.parquet.gz

Genotype data for wild lupin populations from central Michigan

Habitat degradation can have significant effects on native species inhabiting natural ecosystems. Within oak barrens and oak-pine barrens ecosystems, there is a complex interspecies interaction between the federally endangered Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) and its obligate host plant, wild lupine (Lupinus perennis L.). Recruitment of wild lupine is critical for maintaining butterfly populations; however, this recruitment can be impeded by habitat fragmentation. Reduced recruitment can result in low genetic diversity in isolated populations, limiting its adaptive potential to respond to environmental change. This study was aimed at understanding the genetic diversity and population structure of wild lupine populations throughout central and west Michigan. We identified significant population structure across most of the populations sampled, with only two sites not significantly different from each other. No sites within our study area displayed statistically significant levels of inbreeding. There are also at least two genetic clusters of wild lupine present within our study region, although there is significant overlap among these groups, indicating that genetic differentiation among clusters may be limited.

Ostrinia population genomics: Custom scripts and synteny mapping results

We sampled seven Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée) populations across 23 degrees of latitude in China to elucidate the genetic basis of diapause variation and evolutionary mechanisms driving parallel clinal responses. Using pooled whole-genome sequencing (Pool-seq) data, population genomic analyses revealed hundreds of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) whose allele frequencies covaried with mean diapause phenotypes along the cline. Archived on Dryad are the custom R scripts used in the population genomic analyses as well as the mapping of O. furnacalis scaffolds to Bombyx mori reference chromosomes (for visualizing population genetic statistics across chromosomes).

Hurricanes affect diversification among individual life courses of a primate population

<ol> <li>Extreme climatic events may influence individual-level variability in phenotypes, survival, and reproduction, and thereby drive the pace of evolution. Climate models predict increases in the frequency of intense hurricanes, but no study has measured their impact on individual life courses within animal populations.</li> <li>We used 45 years of demographic data of rhesus macaques to quantify the influence of major hurricanes on reproductive life courses using multiple metrics of dynamic heterogeneity accounting for life course variability and life history trait variances.</li> <li>To reduce intraspecific competition, individuals may explore new reproductive stages during years of major hurricanes, resulting in higher temporal variation in reproductive trajectories. Alternatively, individuals may opt for a single optimal life history strategy due to trade-offs between survival and reproduction.</li> <li>Our results show that heterogeneity in reproductive life courses increased by 4% during years of major hurricanes, despite a 2% reduction in the asymptotic growth rate due to an average decrease in mean fertility and survival, i.e. shortened life courses and reduced reproductive output. In agreement with this, the population is expected to achieve stable population dynamics faster after being perturbed by a hurricane (ρ = 1.512; 95% CI: 1.488, 1.538), relative to ordinary years (ρ = 1.482;1.475,1.490).</li> <li>Our work suggests that natural disasters force individuals into new demographic roles to potentially reduce competition during unfavorable environments where mean reproduction and survival are compromised. Variance in lifetime reproductive success and longevity are differently affected by hurricanes, and such variability is mostly driven by survival. </li> </ol>

Hypermutator emergence in experimental Escherichia coli populations is stress type dependent

Genotypes exhibiting an increased mutation rate, called hypermutators, can propagate in microbial populations because they can have an advantage due to the higher supply of beneficial mutations needed for adaptation. Although this is a frequently observed phenomenon in natural and laboratory populations, little is known about the influence of parameters such as the degree of maladaptation, stress intensity and the genetic architecture for adaptation on the emergence of hypermutators. To address this knowledge gap, we measured the emergence of hypermutators over ~1000 generations in experimental Escherichia coli populations exposed to different levels of osmotic or antibiotic stress. Our stress types were chosen based on the assumption that the genetic architecture for adaptation differs between them. Indeed, we show that the size of the genetic basis for adaptation is larger for osmotic stress compared to antibiotic stress. During our experiment, we observed an increased emergence of hypermutators in populations exposed to osmotic stress but not in those exposed to antibiotic stress, indicating that hypermutator emergence rates are stress-type-dependent. These results support our hypothesis that hypermutator emergence is linked to the size of the genetic basis for adaptation. In addition, we identified other parameters that covaried with stress type (stress level and IS transposition rates) that might have contributed to an increased hypermutator provision and selection. Our results provide a first comparison of hypermutator emergence rates under varying stress conditions and point towards complex interactions of multiple stress-related factors on the evolution of mutation rates.

Model for: Characterizing long‐term population conditions of the elusive red tree vole with dynamic individual‐based modeling

<div class="abstract"> Old growth forests are declining globally, threatening dependent wildlife. Many arboreal old‐growth obligates, such as the threatened red tree vole, are difficult to monitor for changes in habitat occupancy, and abundance. Yet, conservation planning relies on this information to prevent population declines. We integrated a range of species, habitat, and landscape change information to develop a dynamic habitat‐population model. The spatial individual‐based model simulated dynamic patterns of occupancy that responded to annual habitat maps, describing 36 years of observed change. We simulated population dynamics and local movement to characterize changes in occupancy and abundance, and the capacity of remaining habitat to support red tree voles. Red tree vole redistribution patterns strongly corresponded to wildfire footprints and timber extraction locations. Population strongholds are likely to exist in clumped pockets of old‐growth forest that were unaffected by wildfire and in protected old forest reserves. However, the exact number and locations of local clusters remain uncertain. Simulated population losses occurred at different paces in different places, underscoring the need for recurring evaluation of population changes with field occupancy surveys and modeled evaluations that can anticipate potential connectivity and extirpation thresholds. This modeling approach was effective at leveraging existing information for a data‐light species to assess how historical changes to the quantity, quality, and configuration of habitat likely influenced the potential landscape capacity, species abundance, and distribution. Dynamic individual‐based modeling can benefit conservation planning for red tree vole and other reclusive forest species by providing biologically nuanced assessments of abundance and distribution. Such models can also project the long‐term benefits and impacts of spatially explicit land management plans. </div> <div class="abstract"></div>