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Figure 8. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 8. A, lateral view of m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis (m. l.c.d. cranialis), m. longus colli dorsalis pars caudalis (m. l.c.d. caudalis) and mm. intertransversarii (mm. intertrans.) of Cygnus columbianus. Note posterior slips contributing to m. l.c.d. cranialis, ventrally inserting heads of m. l.c.d. caudalis and multiple tendinous divisions of all mm. intertrans. B, left m. transversospinalis cervicis (m. trans. cerv., outlined in grey) of Caiman crocodylus, inserts by a white tendon onto C1. M. spinocapitis posticus (m. sp. cap. post.) and m. longissimus capitis superficialis (m. long. cap. sup., with part of surrounding fascia left on) are also outlined in grey. Superficial muscles have been removed.

Figure 7. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 7. A, dorsal view of m. biventer cervicis (m. biv. c., dark outline) and m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis of Aquila chrysaetos. Note the tendon intervening between anterior and posterior bellies of m. biv. c. M. complexus has been removed. B, dorsal view of m. transversospinalis capitis (m. trans. cap., dark outline) of Alligator mississippiensis. Medial and lateral portions of m. trans. cap. in Alligator are not distinguished here. C, lateral view of m. trans. cap. of Alligator mississippiensis (dark outline). D, m. complexus (dark outline) and m. rectus capitis lateralis (light outline) of Pelicanus occidentalis in lateral view. E, m. complexus of Pelicanus occidentalis, outlined in dark grey on the right. This is a dorsal view, with anterior towards the top. F, dorsal view of dissected Alligator mississippiensis, with m. epistrpheo-capitis lateralis, m. spinocapitis posticus and m. transversospinalis cervicis outlined in grey. M. transversospinalis capitis has been removed. G, m. splenius capitis of Anas platyrhynchos, from C2 to the occiput, outlined in grey, in posterior view. M. complexus and m. biventer cervicis have been removed. H, m. epistropheo-capitis medialis/m. altoïdius capitis of Caiman crocodylus, outlined in grey. M. transversospinalis capitis and m. epistropheo-capitis lateralis have been removed.

Figure 5 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 5. Attachments of muscles inserting on the occiput of birds. A, posterior cervical vertebrae of Strutio camelus, showing osteological origin of posterior belly of m. biventer cervicis. B, anterior cervical vertebrae of Haliaeetus leucocephalus, with origins of m. complexus, m. splenius capitis and m. rectus capitis dorsalis (outlined). M. complexus originates from the epipophyses dorsally (as in Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and sometimes the lateral tubercles ventrally. For adjoining origins of m. complexus and m. rectus capitis dorsalis from the lateral tubercles, the latter is the anterior of each pair. C, occiput of Struthio camelus, depicting all insertions. In Struthio camelus and many other birds m. splenius capitis lateralis inserts laterally onto the occiput, but in other birds part of m. complexus inserts here.

Figure 4 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 4. Comparison of major sites of muscle attachment on the necks of tyrannosaurids versus crocodilians and birds. A, cervical series of Caiman crocodylus (above; C1–C9) and Tyrannosaurus rex (below; C1–C10), depicting similarities of posterior transverse process morpohology. B, cervical series of Asio flamaeus (above) and Tyrannosaurus rex (below), depicting morphological similarities of epipophysis and the C2 neural spine. In all three groups the anterior transverse processes are smaller than their posterior counterparts (to show this clearly the C2 cerivical rib of T. rex is not pictured). Cervical rib morphology differs markedly among these archosaurs. The specimens are scaled to similar lengths from C1 to C9. The Tyrannosaurus rex is a composite reconstruction of C1 from Osborn (1905), BHI 3033 (C2) and AMNH 5027 (the remaining bones).

Figure 3 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 3. Flow chart for extant behavioural interpolation, which enables inference of muscle-modulated behaviours in extinct animals. The certainty of behavioural inference in an extinct taxon is inversely related to the behaviour's specificity. Behaviour can be inferred by phylogenetic bracketing if similarity of muscle function is established in extant clades by kinematic and physiological considerations, and if these functions correlate with similar behaviours in the extant groups.

Figure 19. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 19. A, origins of m. transversospinalis capitis (C2–C9), m. complexus (C2–C5) and m. splenius capitis from C2 and possibly C3, of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033). B, rugose scarring of m. transversospinalis capitis insertion on parietals of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5029). C, insertion of m. transversospinalis capitis onto parietals of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored), with moment arms for lateral and dorsiflexion. D, insertions and moment arms for m. complexus (two dorsal) and m. iliocostalis capitis (ventral) on occiput of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored for clarity).

Figure 2. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 2. A, inference of muscle function for turning the head in extant animals. Axes represent levels of corroboration of muscle topological and kinematic morphology, physiology and observed behaviour. The volume subtended by these levels of certainty is the behavioural inference space for the muscle. The muscles m. transversospinalis capitis lateralis and m. complexus, homologous and present in crocodilians and birds, respectively, are depicted as examples with different levels of corroboration along the axes and more or less certain inference of function. Physiological activity is shown as confirmed by electromyography in birds, but only hypothesized in crocodilians. B, inferring the function of m. complexus for turning the head in tyrannosaurids. Axes represent levels of inference (Witmer, 1995) for morphology and physiology, and level of inference for kinematic action of the muscle based on its reconstructed morphology (see text for explanation). Because physiological muscle function during movements is corroborated in only one pole of the extant bracket, and the physiology does not leave osteological correlates, a Level II′ inference is the best possible for the extinct taxon.

Figure 1 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 1. Divisions of amniote neck and craniocervical musculature, superimposed on the cervical vertebrae of Caiman crocodylus. Different shades represent transversospinalis, longissimus, iliocostalis and longus/medial iliocostalis divisions.

FIGURE 8 in Diversity and fossil record of larvae of three groups of lacewings with unusual ecology and functional morphology: Ithonidae, Coniopterygidae and Sisyridae

FIGURE 8. Comparison of the two beak larvae to a larva of Coniopterygidae. A. Larva (specimen 6802) from Haug et al. (2020b). B. New beak larva (specimen 6803, based on Figure 5B). C. Larva of Aleuropteryx loewi (based on several figures from Rousset, 1966).

FIGURE 6 in Diversity and fossil record of larvae of three groups of lacewings with unusual ecology and functional morphology: Ithonidae, Coniopterygidae and Sisyridae

FIGURE 6. Additional specimens of larvae of Sisyridae preserved in Baltic amber. Images kindly provided by Jonas Damzen (JD) and Marius Veta (RMV). A. JD 6345, specimen 6503, in ventral view, 3.5 mm long. B, C. RMV 2380, specimen 6504, 3 mm long. B. Dorsal view. C. Ventral view. D, E. JD 4198, specimen 6505, 4 mm long. D. Dorsal view. E. Ventral view. F, G. RMV 2793, specimen 6506, 2 mm long. F. Left lateral view. G. Right lateral view. H, I. RMV 2794, specimen 6507, 3.2 mm long. H. Lateral view. I. Dorsal view.

FIGURE 7 in Diversity and fossil record of larvae of three groups of lacewings with unusual ecology and functional morphology: Ithonidae, Coniopterygidae and Sisyridae

FIGURE 7. Scatterplot of PC2 vs. PC1. Note how the two beak larvae (specimens 6802 + 6803) plot together with larvae of Coniopterygidae.

FIGURE 4 in Diversity and fossil record of larvae of three groups of lacewings with unusual ecology and functional morphology: Ithonidae, Coniopterygidae and Sisyridae

FIGURE 4. Fossil larva, "beak larva" type 2, from Myanmar amber, PED 0596, specimen 6803. A. Dorsal view; posterior part not well accessible. B. Colour-marked version of A. Abbreviations: 1t = trunk appendage 1; at = antenna; hc = head capsule; ms = mesothorax; pl = palp; pt = prothorax.

FIGURE 5 in Diversity and fossil record of larvae of three groups of lacewings with unusual ecology and functional morphology: Ithonidae, Coniopterygidae and Sisyridae

FIGURE 5. Fossil larva, "beak larva" type 2, from Myanmar amber, PED 0596, specimen 6803, continued. A. Ventral view; details not well accessible; posterior end not inside the amber. B. Close-up on head in dorsal view. C. Close up on trunk appendage 1 in dorsal view. D. Same as C; estimated outline of appendage, visible through tergite outlined in red. Abbreviations: at = antenna; "b" = beak; pl = palp.

FIGURE 3 in Diversity and fossil record of larvae of three groups of lacewings with unusual ecology and functional morphology: Ithonidae, Coniopterygidae and Sisyridae

FIGURE 3. Fossil larva of Sisyridae from Baltic amber, CCGG 7122, specimen 6502. A. Dorsal view. B. Ventral view. C. Colour-marked version of B. D. Close-up of head in dorsal view. E. Colour-marked version of D. F. Close-up on gills. G. Close-up on trunk end. Abbreviations: at = antenna; hc = head capsule; ms = mesothorax; mt = metathorax; pt = prothorax; sy = stylet.

FIGURE 1 in Diversity and fossil record of larvae of three groups of lacewings with unusual ecology and functional morphology: Ithonidae, Coniopterygidae and Sisyridae

FIGURE 1. Fossil larva of Coniopterygidae from Baltic amber, CCHH 540-1, specimen 6301. A. Ventral view. B. Dorsal view. C. Colour-marked version of B. D. Close-up of head in dorsal view. E. Close-up of head in ventral view. F. Close-up on right hind leg; arrows mark claws. G. Close-up of hind leg; arrows mark claws. Abbreviations: a1–a8 = abdomen segment 1–8; at = antenna; cx = coxa; e1–3 = element 1–3; fe = femur; hc = head capsule; lp = labial palp; ms = mesothorax; mt = metathorax; pt = prothorax; st = stemmata; ta = tarsus; te = trunk end; ti = tibia; tr = trochanter.

FIGURE 2 in Diversity and fossil record of larvae of three groups of lacewings with unusual ecology and functional morphology: Ithonidae, Coniopterygidae and Sisyridae

FIGURE 2. Fossil larva of Sisyridae from Baltic amber, CCGG 1383, specimen 6501. A. Dorsal view. B. Ventral view. C. Colour-marked version of B. D. Close-up of head in dorsal view. E. Colour-marked version of D; arrows mark stemmata. F. Close-up on gills. G. Close-up on processes on trunk segments. Abbreviations: a3–a7 = abdomen segment 3–7; at = antenna; gi = gills; hc = head capsule; ms = mesothorax; mt = metathorax; pt = prothorax; sy = stylet; te = trunk end.

Figures 7–8. Aporus hirsutus prey transport. 7 in Nesting behavior, ecology, and functional morphology of the trapdoor spider-hunting spider wasp Aporus (Plectraporus) hirsutus (Banks) (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae)

Figures 7–8. Aporus hirsutus prey transport. 7) Aporus hirsutus female dragging Aptostichus simus juvenile backwards across sand, grasping end of its right foreleg with her mandibles. Sandy coastal back dunes, Santa Barbara County, CA; 17 June 2015; A. Abela. Photograph © Alice Abela. 8) Aporus hirsutus female dragging Aptostichus simus juvenile backwards across sand, grasping tibia of its 2nd left leg with her mandibles. The wasp's wings are folded on her dorsum, sandy coastal back dunes, Santa Barbara County, CA; 17 June 2015; A. Abela. Photograph © Alice Abela.

Figure 10 in Nesting behavior, ecology, and functional morphology of the trapdoor spider-hunting spider wasp Aporus (Plectraporus) hirsutus (Banks) (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae)

Figure 10. Aporus (Plectraporus) hirsutus (Banks) antenna orbit/socket position (Wasbauer and Kimsey 1985, this study).

Figures 1–2. Aporus hirsutus and Aptostichus simus. 1 in Nesting behavior, ecology, and functional morphology of the trapdoor spider-hunting spider wasp Aporus (Plectraporus) hirsutus (Banks) (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae)

Figures 1–2. Aporus hirsutus and Aptostichus simus. 1) Aporus hirsutus resting on sand, digging in sand, sandy coastal back dunes, Santa Barbara County, CA; 12 June 2014; A. Abela. The species name "hirsutus" refers to the hairiness of the body. Species identification structures include short antennae and forelegs, quasi-triangular flattened head, elongate pronotum, swollen forefemur and foretibia, thick foretarsal rake spines, and only two submarginal cells in forewing. The concave back of the head, not seen to this degree in other Nearctic Aporus species, fits snugly against the front of the convex pronotum, enabling the wasp to tunnel unobstructed through sand. Photograph © Alice Abela. 2) Aptostichus simus female on sand, Montaña de Oro State Park, San Luis Obispo County, CA; 8 June 2014; A. Abela. Females lack obvious distinguishing external morphological features, except for sharply delineated patch of endite cuspules on abdominal venter. All Aptostichus species have psammophilous body coloration (Bond 2012). Photograph © Alice Abela.

Figure 9 in Nesting behavior, ecology, and functional morphology of the trapdoor spider-hunting spider wasp Aporus (Plectraporus) hirsutus (Banks) (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae)

Figure 9. Aptostichus species California geographic distribution (from Bond 2012) and Aporus (Plectraporus) hirsutus (Banks) geographic range (Wasbauer and Kimsey 1985; this study).