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Long-Term Dynamics of Oak and Chestnut in Central Massachusetts from 3500 BP to Present

Despite decades of study we have limited insights into the nature of the pre-European landscape of the northeastern USA and the forces and changes that shaped modern forest patterns. Information on such long-term forest dynamics would provide critical insights into the relationships among environmental change, land-use history and biotic responses and is greatly needed for conservation planning. To address these issues we used modern, historical, and paleoecological approaches to reconstruct the 3500-year history of a New England upland region dominated by oak and (formerly) chestnut forests and to interpret the interactions among climate change, natural and human disturbance, and site factors in controlling vegetation patterns and dynamics at different spatial scales. The results indicate that stand, landscape and regional forest dynamics were most strongly driven by climate, notably an apparent cooling and increase in moisture availability c. 1500 yr BP, and European land-use activities commencing 260 yr BP. However, the abundance of oak and chestnut (fire-tolerant, sprouting species) and the distribution of hemlock (fire-intolerant) at a stand to landscape scale were also influenced by fire, which, in turn, varied with climate and human activity. Despite, or perhaps as a consequence of ongoing disturbance by fire and presumably windstorms in this hurricane-prone region, the pre-European period was marked by two 1000+ year periods of remarkably stable forest composition, separated by an abrupt compositional shift. In contrast, over the past 260 years the vegetation has changed rather continuously in response to human activity, producing stand, landscape and regional patterns that are novel as well as recent in origin. Chestnut was a major component of some pre-European landscapes in New England, in part because of occasional fire, and that cultural and physical factors have interacted over millennia to control vegetation patterns and dynamics. Our analyses also su

Massachusetts Timber Harvesting Study 1984-2003

Sustainability of the forest at a regional scale in landscapes dominated by non-industrial private forest (NIPF) ownership depends on the often-independent actions and behaviors of thousands of private families and individuals. These NIPF lands comprise the dominant forest ownership in many parts of the United States, and represent an important part of the greater forest landscape matrix even in parts of the region where industrial and/or public lands dominate. In northeastern states, NIPF lands can represent 75% or more of total forest area. While forest landowner attitudinal survey work in the past several decades has explored reasons for ownership, motivations, and perspectives on traditional management (e.g., do you intend to harvest in the next 10 years?), little if any study has focused on attitudes and, importantly, documented behaviors related to sustainability on their lands. Some landowner attitudes pertaining to the notion of sustainability can be inferred from earlier work (e.g., documented interest in wildlife habitat and nature, aesthetics, and privacy), but these do not directly link to sustainability or timber productivity on their own lands. As the urban-rural interface expands from metropolitan centers, though this wooded landscape may appear to be forested from the air, it no longer sustains a number of benefits upon which society has grown to depend. In particular, timber harvesting declines as a viable and sustainable land use activity. We seek to: 1. Study the decision-making process, priorities, and behaviors of different types of NIPF owners, in terms of sustainable harvesting, and sale/ development; 2. Use landscape-scale spatial data and associated demographic data to assess the extent to which such landscapes can remain sustainable producers of wood products in the face of expanding urban/ suburban influence; and 3. study sites that have sustained harvests and document the successional trajectory, in an effort to estimate the future compos

Massachusetts Growing Degree Day and Precipitation Maps 2003

A regression model that estimates monthly temperature and precipitation as a function of latitude, longitude, and elevation for the New England area was used to estimate annual growing degree days and precipitation for the state of Massachusetts. For details of the regression model please see the published paper (Ollinger, S.V., Aber, J.D., Federer, C.A., Lovett, G.M., Ellis, J.M., 1995. Modeling Physical and Chemical Climate of the Northeastern United States for a Geographic Information System. US Dept of Agriculture, Forest Service, Radnor, PA, USA).

Environment and History in a Rich Mesic Forest in Western Massachusetts 1999-2001

In rich mesic forests, modern vegetation varies among primary versus post-agricultural, secondary forests, in part as a result of differential rate and ability of forest herbs to colonize after disturbance. Species with seeds lacking morphological adaptations for dispersal (barochores) and those which produce seeds with elaisomes to encourage ant dispersal (myrmecochores) may remain less frequent in secondary forests for decades or more.

Headwater Habitat Streams in Central Massachusetts 2002-2005

Headwater streams, particularly those that flow only during part of the year, are understudied and underprotected in Massachusetts. Research being conducted elsewhere suggests that these "Headwater Habitat Streams" are important both for aquatic biodiversity and for ecological function of lower stream reaches. We are carrying out baseline research, involving research scientists and volunteers, on hydrology and habitat characteristics in headwater streams in northern Worcester County, MA. We hypothesized that headwater streams exhibit a longitudinal gradient of hydrology, from (1) ephemeral channels that flow only in response to storms, through (2) intermittent sections that flow seasonally until the groundwater table falls below the channel and are dry the rest of the year, to (3) interstitial reaches that flow seasonally and retain pools connected by subsurface flow during the summer, to (4) the perennial stream. Results to date show a high degree of longitudinal heterogeneity in the study streams, with interspersion of perennially flowing reaches among low-gradient sections of vegetated wetland, high-gradient boulder piles, and braided channels. Perennial flow is found high up in some watersheds. We expect our methods and results will have implications throughout the Commonwealth for local conservation commissions and other municipal officials responsible for land-use planning and regulation, state agencies responsible for land management and the protection of wildlife, regulators reviewing projects affecting streams, watershed managers, teachers and their students, private land trusts, conservation advocates, and citizen-naturalists.

Stream Periphyton Response to Hemlock Mortality in Central Massachusetts 2006

The Hemlock Wooly Adelgid (HWA) invasion is expected to cause widespread mortality of eastern hemlock [Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carriere] throughout much of New England. Light levels in streams with hemlock riparian zones are anticipated to increase as hemlock are replaced by deciduous trees. We sought to: 1) quantify differences in light reaching streams with hemlock and deciduous riparian zones, 2) determine if increases in light result in higher periphyton biomass, and 3) explore the role of macroinvertebrate grazing on periphyton biomass as light increases in an attempt to help predict stream ecosystem responses to hemlock mortality. Light measurements were taken along 100-800m stream reaches with riparian zones of healthy hemlock and deciduous trees in MA and CT in order to document an integrated light profile for each stream. In addition, a 2 x 2 factorial experimental design with five replicates was executed on a deciduous reach of Egypt Brook in central MA, in which light (high light vs. low light) and grazing (high grazing vs. low grazing) were manipulated. Light measurements were significantly higher for streams with deciduous riparian zones than hemlock riparian zones. Controlled shading reduced chlorophyll a, while excluding grazing yielded inconclusive results. Periphyton biomass in Egypt Brook was found to be light limited, and grazing did not suppress periphyton biomass. As hemlocks die, in-stream light will be significantly augmented, and periphyton biomass will increase. A challenge for stream ecologists will be to incorporate multiple physical, chemical, and biological controls on biota in order to fully understand how regional hemlock mortality will alter stream periphyton biomass.

openCC (other)Dec 2025View details →

Rates of benthic metabolism and nutrient cycling in the Parker and Rowley Rivers of the Plum Island Sound estuary, Massachusetts, PIE LTER.

Rates of benthic metabolism and nutrient cycling in the Parker and Rowley Rivers of the Plum Island Sound estuary. Measurements include those conducted at two sites in the Parker River in Spring (high river discharge) and Fall (low discharge) for long-term monitoring, also at other sites throughout the estuary over a variety of seasons and salinities.

openCC (other)Feb 2026View details →

PIE LTER dissolved nutrient and particulate concentrations of freshwater inputs to the Plum Island estuarine system, Massachusetts, taken approximately monthly.

Multi-year data of water chemistry including nutrient concentrations for various forms of N, P, C, as well as suspended sediments, was determined from monthly grab samples taken at watershed inputs to the Plum Island Sound Estuary. Sampling sites were the Ipswich River (Sylvania Dam, Ipswich, MA), Parker River Dam (Central St, Newbury, MA), Egypt River (Ipswich, MA) Mill River (Newbury, MA), Muddy Run (Ipswich, MA), Little River (Newbury, MA). These nutrient concentrations are then used in conjunction with USGS discharge data (recorded at gages in the Parker River at Byfield, MA and the Ipswich River at Ipswich, MA) to calculate annual nutrient loading to the Plum Island Sound Estuary, coming over each dam. Annual yield is also calculated for both dams. Refer to file WAT-VA-Load for loading data.

openCC (other)Jun 2025View details →

PIE LTER transects of the Parker River Plum Island Sound Estuary, Massachusetts conducted at dawn and dusk, containing dissolved oxygen, conductivity, temperature, percent saturation, pH, DIC and pCO2 data.

Multi-year transects, beginning in 1995, of the Parker River Plum Island Sound Estuary conducted at dawn and dusk, containing dissolved oxygen, conductivity, temperature, percent saturation, pH, salinity, DIC and pCO2 measurements. Differences between dawn and dusk measurements can be used to determine the water metabolism and corresponding estimates of gross primary production, total system respiration and net ecosystem production.

openCC (other)Jun 2025View details →

PIE LTER surface elevation table (SET) pin height data from twelve marsh sites in northeast Massachusetts.

Surface elevation table (SET) measurements from 26 SETs at 9 marsh sites in the Plum Island Sound Long-Term Ecological Research Site in the Great Marsh, Massachusetts. SET measurements are useful for determining the relative elevation change of marsh sediments. Precise measurements of sediment elevation in marshes is useful for determining rates of elevation change in response to changes in sea level.

openCC (other)Jun 2025View details →

Transects of the Rowley River, Plum Island Sound Estuary, Massachusetts conducted at dawn and dusk, containing dissolved oxygen, conductivity, temperature, percent saturation, pH, DIC and pCO2 data, PIE LTER.

Multi-year transects, beginning in 2016, of the Rowley River Plum Island Sound Estuary, MA conducted at dawn and dusk, containing dissolved oxygen, conductivity, temperature, percent saturation, pH, DIC and pCO2 measurements. Differences between dawn and dusk measurements can be used to determine the water column metabolism and corresponding estimates of gross primary production, total system respiration and net ecosystem production.

openCC (other)Aug 2021View details →

PIE LTER zooplankton surveys using plankton tows along transects in the Plum Island Sound estuary, Massachusetts (Reformatted to the ecocomDP Design Pattern)

This data package is formatted as an ecocomDP (Ecological Community Data Pattern). For more information on ecocomDP see https://github.com/EDIorg/ecocomDP. This Level 1 data package was derived from the Level 0 data package found here: https://pasta.lternet.edu/package/metadata/eml/knb-lter-pie/405/2. The abstract below was extracted from the Level 0 data package and is included for context: Zooplankton were collected in spring and late summer/fall at four stations representing the salinity gradient in the Parker River-Plum Island Sound estuary. Two size classes, greater than 335 micron and greater than 150 micron, were collected by net tows. Conductivity or salinty and temperature were recorded for each sample. Samples were concentrated to less than 250 mls and preserved in 70 percent EtOH. For taxonomy, sample splits were taken such that a minimum of 250 individuals were present, and counted under a dissecting microscope. Individuals were identified to the lowest taxonomic level possible, generally to species. Adult copepods were additionally characterized by sex. The Plum Island Ecosystems (PIE) LTER has, since its inception in 1998, been working towards a predictive understanding of the long-term response of coupled land-estuary-ocean ecosystems to changes in three drivers: climate, sea level, and human activities. The Plum Island Estuary-LTER includes the coupled Parker, Rowley, and Ipswich River watersheds, estuarine areas including a shallow open sound, and extensive tidal marshes. PIE is connected to the Gulf of Maine in the Acadian biogeographic province, which is a cold water, macrotidal environment that is geographically and biologically distinct from coastal ecosystems to the south of Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Over the next four years the LTER will build upon the progress they have made in understanding the importance of spatial patterns and connections across the land-margin ecosystem. The overarching goal is to understand how external drivers, ecosystem

openCC (other)Aug 2021View details →

Plum Island LTER phytoplankton identification using HPLC and Chem Taxonomy along transects in the Plum Island Sound estuary, Massachusetts. (Reformatted to the ecocomDP Design Pattern)

This data package is formatted as an ecocomDP (Ecological Community Data Pattern). For more information on ecocomDP see https://github.com/EDIorg/ecocomDP. This Level 1 data package was derived from the Level 0 data package found here: https://pasta.lternet.edu/package/metadata/eml/knb-lter-pie/404/4. The abstract below was extracted from the Level 0 data package and is included for context: Water column samples are collected along an estuarine salinity gradient as part of our monitoring surveys of the Parker River estuary each spring and late summer (typically high vs low freshwater input). Samples are filtered, and stored frozen for later pigment analyses by HPLC. Pigment data are then analyzed by CHEMTAX, calibrated to a matrix of pigment ratios based on taxonomy and enumeration of selected subsamples by microspcopy. Data are presented in terms of chlorophyll a concentrations partitionaed among the major phytoplankton groups as determined by CHEMTAX. For 2003-2006, sampling stations along the Plum Island Sound-Parker River were at fixed geographic locations at specific "Bends" in the river. In 2008, we began sampling the water column in salinity space rather than at specific geographic locations along the river. This sampling approach was adopted in order to follow particular water masses in this macrotidal estuary. In practical terms, it means that sampling locations, or stations, are not static. Therefore, we have mapped the 11 sampling locations (latitude and longitude are logged at each station) from each transect along the mainstem of the estuary, so each station may be placed along the river (to the nearest 0.5km) as well as in salinity space. We have also used the km marker to assign the sampling locations from each survey to one of four bounding boxes : the Sound (Plum Island Sound; EST-PR-SoundBND) which encompasses approximatly the first 9.5 km or the transect, with Okm at the mouth of the sound; the Lower Parker River (EST-PR-LowerParkerBND) , ~9.5 - 1

Holocene Development of a Forested Wetland in Central Massachusetts from 12500 BP to Present

The post-glacial history of two adjacent sites in the Harvard Forest, a 10-ha swamp (Black Gum Swamp) and a 0.006-ha hollow (Hemlock Hollow) in a Tsuga canadensis forest were investigated using pollen analysis. The sites were selected in order to contrast the regional vegetation history revealed from the swamp sediments with the local history of the Tsuga forest reconstructed from the Hollow sediments. Specific objectives were (1) to document the natural and anthropogenic disturbance history, (2) to examine the long-term vegetation dynamics of the two sites resulting from environmental change, species migration, and disturbance, especially with respect to Tsuga, and (3) to contrast the pre-and post-settlement vegetation and environments. The Swamp and Hollow cores contain continuous sediment records covering the past 12,300 and 9500 yr, respectively. Regional vegetation changes are delimited in six pollen zones: I, Herb zone, (12500 – 11800 yr BP); II, Picea zone (11800 –9350 yr BP) III, Pinus-Quercus zone (9350-8350 yr BP); IV, Tsuga-northern hardwoods zone (8350-1750 yr BP); V, Tsuga-Castanea-hardwoods zone (1750-200 yr BP); and VI, Post-settlement zone (200 yr BP-present). No disturbances are detected in the periods of tundra or boreal vegetation from 12500 to 8350 yr BP. Since 8350 yr BP three distinct disturbance processes are detectable: (1) fires recorded in discrete charcoal horizons, (2) the apparent pathogenic decline of Tsuga (4700-3500 yr BP) and the blight of Castanea (~1915 A.D.), and (3) post-settlement forest cutting, burning, land clearance an cultivation (1750 A.D. to present).

Role of Personal Connections in Shaping Decisions About Private Forest Use in Central Massachusetts 2008

We begin with a simple premise: Social and ecological systems are interconnected in complex ways. Forests are, perhaps, one of the most intriguing examples of this interconnectedness--particularly those in private ownerships. Forested landscapes are essential in maintaining human systems through the provision of multiple ecosystem services that span public (e.g., clean water, nutrient cycling) and private (e.g., fiber, maple syrup, home sites) goods. However, the majority of forestland in the Eastern United States is a mosaic of small landholdings (less than 20 ha) where property management is largely uncoordinated. On such landscapes, decentralized, ownership-centric decision-making defines the mix of ecosystem services provided and the landscape patterns present now and in the future. While somewhat effective for less spatially sensitive ecosystem services (e.g., fiber production), this ownership-centric approach is ill suited to spatially sensitive ones (e.g., water quality) and may, in some cases, be detrimental to them (e.g., habitat fragmentation). Improving the ecological and landscape sensitivity of private forest conservation and management is a major challenge facing researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in sustaining forest ecosystems. Central to unraveling this challenge is a fundamental understanding of how landowners simultaneously fit within their social and bio-physical landscapes. Despite their importance to broader forest sustainability, our collectively understanding of forest landowners has been primarily concerned with individual landowners and/or individual properties. For example, most research surrounding private forest landowners centers on primarily agent-based theories of behavior or decision-making (e.g., rational actor, theory of planned behavior). This perspective is useful in predicting and effecting behavior at broad scales, but lacks the specificity needed to address local landscape concerns and/or opportunities. Other studies

Impacts of Land Use on Japanese Barberry Invasion in Central Massachusetts 2005

Despite the recognized importance of historical factors in controlling many native species distributions, few studies have incorporated historical landscape changes into models of invasive species distribution and abundance. We explore the possibility that the current distribution of invasive species may reflect legacies of historical land use despite nearly a century of forest succession and subsequent disturbances. We evaluated the modern distribution and abundance of Berberis thunbergii DC. (Japanese barberry), a problematic non-native shrub in forests of the northeastern U.S., relative to two distinct periods of historical land use, modern forest harvesting activity, and environmental and edaphic characteristics. Species questions addressed in this study include: (1) Do patterns of historical land use influence modern barberry distribution and abundance? (2) What is the influence of disturbance type and timing relative to the timing of introduction on current barberry distribution and abundance? (3) Which disturbance, environmental and edaphic variables best predict modern barberry distribution and abundance? Japanese barberry occurred more frequently and was more abundant in sites historically cleared for agriculture than in historically wooded sites. This relationship was strongest for areas in agriculture in the early 20th century after barberry was introduced to the region. The strong relationship between modern distribution patterns and prior land use suggests historical colonization of abandoned agricultural lands and persistence through subsequent reforestation. Contrary to our expectations, recent forest harvesting did not influence the occurrence or abundance of barberry. Our results indicate that interpretations of both native community composition and modern plant invasions must consider the importance of historical landscape changes and the timing of species introduction along with current environmental and edaphic conditions.

Demography of Sarracenia Purpurea in Massachusetts and Vermont 1997-2021

The northern pitcher plant Sarracenia purpurea is a model system for forecasting extinction risk in the face of environmental change. We have monitored demographic variables of two mapped cohorts of S. purpurea in ombrotrophic bogs of northern New England from 1997-2005 (Hawley Bog, Massachusetts) and 1997-present (Molly Bog, Vermont). Growth, survivorship, and reproduction are in close balance, and matrix-models with four life stages (seeds, seedlings/juvenile plants, non-flowering adult plants, flowering adults) predicted population growth rates close to zero, with long doubling times. To further assess seed-to-seedling transitions, we measured and weighed Sarracenia seeds, and conducted a greenhouse experiment on density-dependent dynamics of newly germinated seedlings of S. purpurea.

Land-Use Impacts on Ecosystem Services Provisioning in Massachusetts 2001-2011

Meeting fundamental human needs while also maintaining ecosystem function and services is the central challenge of sustainability science. In the densely populated state of Massachusetts, USA, abundant forests and other natural land cover convey a range of ecosystem services. However, after more than a century of reforestation following an agrarian past, Massachusetts is again losing forests, this time to housing and commercial development. We used land-cover maps, ecosystem process models, and land-use data bases to map changes (2001, 2006, 2011) in eight ecosystem service variables and to identify “hotspots,” or areas that produce a high value of five or more services, at three policy-relevant spatial scales. Water-related services (clean water provisioning and flood regulation) experienced local declines in response to shifting land uses, but changed little when measured at the state-level. General habitat quality for terrestrial species declined state-wide during the study period as a consequence of forest loss. In contrast, climate regulation (carbon storage) and cultural services (outdoor recreation) increased, driven by continued forest biomass accrual and land protection, respectively. Timber harvest volume had high inter-annual variability, but no temporal trend. The scale at which hotspots are delineated greatly affects their quantity and spatial configuration, with a higher density in eastern Massachusetts and 10–12% more hotspots overall when they are identified at a town scale as compared to a watershed or state scale. Ecosystem service hotspots cover a small percentage of land area in Massachusetts (2.5–3.5% of the state), but are becoming more abundant as urbanization concentrates ecosystem service provisioning onto a diminished natural land base. This suggests that while ecosystem service hotspots are valuable targets for conservation, more are not necessarily better since hotspot proliferation can reflect the bifurcation of the landscape into servic

Land Owner Decisions and Consequences in North Central Massachusetts 1950-2009

Landscapes dominated by private ownership experience change as properties change hands, change monetary value, undergo land use conversion, become isolated or lose road access, or are divided and hence smaller in size. The future ecological integrity, connectivity, and function of landscapes dominated by private ownership depend on the speed or frequency with which decisions are made, the kinds of decisions, and their outcomes or consequences. One way to study this human behavior on land is through attitudinal surveys of owners investigating their motivations, beliefs, and values. Another is to pose hypothetical circumstances and query owners about potential response or reactions. Another involves the study of social networks around owners, and determining the extent to which information flows between owners and may influence decisions. We proposed instead to study or monitor decisions made and resulting circumstances, and to establish a long-term framework or network of points at which land owner decisions will be sampled over time. In essence, we proposed to study behavior enacted on the landscape, rather than individual people. Data derived from this network and sampling will inform land use scenario modeling efforts to forecast the future trajectory of the landscape, its rate of change, and subsequent potential provision of ecosystem services. The network was established to monitor change over time in the future, but an important aspect was to establish the baseline and antecedent circumstances that led to existing conditions. A classic historic study following specific decision-making over time on land ownership over generations is told in the Sanderson Farm story at the Harvard Forest: http://www.foresthistory.org/Publications/FHT/FHT1997/SandersonsFarm.pdf Establishment of the baseline and historic circumstances will inform models of future decisions. The summer 2009 project was a proof-of-concept to test the extent to which points could be established and an

Long-term Dynamics of Vegetation and Environment in Central Massachusetts 1000-2000

Historical and ecological data from north-central Massachusetts suggest that widespread and intensive human disturbance after European settlement led to a shift in forest composition and obscured regional patterns of species abundance. A paleoecological approach was required to place recent forest dynamics in a long-term context. Pollen and charcoal data from 11 small lakes in north-central Massachusetts were used to reconstruct local vegetation dynamics and fire histories across the region over the past 1000 years. The sites are located across an environmental gradient. Paleoecological data indicate that prior to European settlement, there was regional variation in forest composition corresponding to differences in climate, substrate, and fire regime. Oak, chestnut and hickory were abundant at low elevations, whereas hemlock, beech, sugar maple, and yellow birch were common at high elevations. Fire appears to have been more frequent and/or intense at lower elevations, maintaining high abundances of oak, and archaeological data suggest Native American populations were greater in these areas. A change in forest composition at higher elevations, around 550 years before present, may be related to the Little Ice Age (a period of variable climate), fire, and/or activity by Native Americans, and led to regional convergence in forest composition. After European settlement, forest composition changed markedly in response to human disturbance and there was a sharp increase in rates of vegetation change. Regional patterns were obscured further, leading to homogenization of broad-scale forest composition. There is no indication from the pollen data that forests are returning to pre-European settlement forest composition, and rates of vegetation change remain high, reflecting continuing disturbance to the landscape, despite regional reforestation.