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Text-fig. 5. Enamel ultrastructure of m1-2, Equus gmelini (Kamiana Mohyla). a: type I, scale bar = 2 Μm; b: type II, scale bar = 10 Μm; c: type II near the OES border, scale bar = 2 Μm. in The Ultrastructure Of The Tooth Enamel Of Small Equus Of The "Tarpan" Group And Their Possible Phylogenetic Connections

Text-fig. 5. Enamel ultrastructure of m1-2, Equus gmelini (Kamiana Mohyla). a: type I, scale bar = 2 Μm; b: type II, scale bar = 10 Μm; c: type II near the OES border, scale bar = 2 Μm.

Text-fig. 6. Enamel ultrastructure of M2, Equus gmelini (Hirzhevo). a: type I and III, scale bar = 20 Μm; b: IPM and PE first type prisms, scale bar = 3 Μm; c, d: wavy/decussated enamel of TZ, scale bar = 20 and 10 Μm respectively; e: type II near OES border, scale bar = 2 Μm; f: type III, scale bar = 2 Μm. in The Ultrastructure Of The Tooth Enamel Of Small Equus Of The "Tarpan" Group And Their Possible Phylogenetic Connections

Text-fig. 6. Enamel ultrastructure of M2, Equus gmelini (Hirzhevo). a: type I and III, scale bar = 20 Μm; b: IPM and PE first type prisms, scale bar = 3 Μm; c, d: wavy/decussated enamel of TZ, scale bar = 20 and 10 Μm respectively; e: type II near OES border, scale bar = 2 Μm; f: type III, scale bar = 2 Μm.

Text-fig. 2. Measurements (Μm) of the width of IPM and PE prisms of various types of enamel in representatives of Equidae from the "tarpan" group. in The Ultrastructure Of The Tooth Enamel Of Small Equus Of The "Tarpan" Group And Their Possible Phylogenetic Connections

Text-fig. 2. Measurements (Μm) of the width of IPM and PE prisms of various types of enamel in representatives of Equidae from the "tarpan" group.

Text-fig. 7. Enamel ultrastructure of P3, Equus caballus (konik polski). a: enamel row, scale bar = 50 Μm; b: type I and III, scale bar = 50 Μm; c: type I, scale bar = 10 Μm; d, e: wavy enamel of TZ with decussations, scale bar = 100 and 50 Μm respectively; f: type II near OES, scale bar = 10 Μm. in The Ultrastructure Of The Tooth Enamel Of Small Equus Of The "Tarpan" Group And Their Possible Phylogenetic Connections

Text-fig. 7. Enamel ultrastructure of P3, Equus caballus (konik polski). a: enamel row, scale bar = 50 Μm; b: type I and III, scale bar = 50 Μm; c: type I, scale bar = 10 Μm; d, e: wavy enamel of TZ with decussations, scale bar = 100 and 50 Μm respectively; f: type II near OES, scale bar = 10 Μm.

Text-fig. 1. Localities of investigated species. Black dots represent places where forms were found. 1 – Hirzhevo, 2 – Myrne, in The Ultrastructure Of The Tooth Enamel Of Small Equus Of The "Tarpan" Group And Their Possible Phylogenetic Connections

Text-fig. 1. Localities of investigated species. Black dots represent places where forms were found. 1 – Hirzhevo, 2 – Myrne,

Text-fig. 3. Tendency of changes in IPM and PE width indicators in different types of enamel of the Equidae species of the "tarpan" group. I–III – types of enamel. a: IPM; b: PE. in The Ultrastructure Of The Tooth Enamel Of Small Equus Of The "Tarpan" Group And Their Possible Phylogenetic Connections

Text-fig. 3. Tendency of changes in IPM and PE width indicators in different types of enamel of the Equidae species of the "tarpan" group. I–III – types of enamel. a: IPM; b: PE.

Text-fig. 11. Enamel ultrastructure of first (a) and second (b, c) lower incisors, Equus caballus (konik polski), vertical sections. a: enamel row, scale bar = 100 Μm; b: arranging the prisms in the HSB structure, scale bar = 20 Μm; c: arranging the prisms in PI structure, scale bar = 20 Μm. in The Ultrastructure Of The Tooth Enamel Of Small Equus Of The "Tarpan" Group And Their Possible Phylogenetic Connections

Text-fig. 11. Enamel ultrastructure of first (a) and second (b, c) lower incisors, Equus caballus (konik polski), vertical sections. a: enamel row, scale bar = 100 Μm; b: arranging the prisms in the HSB structure, scale bar = 20 Μm; c: arranging the prisms in PI structure, scale bar = 20 Μm.

Fig. 1 in Echinococcus multilocularis (Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea, Taeniidae): origin, differentiation and functional ultrastructure of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram illustrating the origin (a) and beginning of differentiation (b) of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane in the preoncospheral stage of embryonic development of Echinococcus multilocularis. All structures involved in formation of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane are marked in orange colour. Two red arrows show direction of progressive sinking or migration of the binucleate subtegumental perikaryon which sunk deep into the central region of differentiating oncosphere. HFC hook-forming cell or oncoblast, HP hook primordium, HRC hook region cavity, IE inner envelope, m mitochondria, N1, N2 two nuclei of the binucleate complex primordium, N nucleus of hook-forming cell, PBC binucleate complex primordium, V vesicles in the outer cytoplasm, undergoing progressive fusion

Fig. 6 in Echinococcus multilocularis (Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea, Taeniidae): origin, differentiation and functional ultrastructure of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane

Fig. 6 TEM micrographs of mature eggs of Echinococcus multilocularis. a Part of the oncosphere showing the high concentration of beta-glycogen particles (β-gl) in the musculature of oncospheral hooks (HM) as indicated by the cytochemical test of Thiéry. b Low-power electron micrograph illustrating the general topography of mature intrauterine egg. Note: (1) a bilateral symmetry of the oncosphere (white interrupted line) and (2) position of hook region membrane and oncospheral tegument at one pole of the hexacanth. The hook region is marked by a frame composed of interrupted black lines. EmB embryophoric blocks, GC germinative cells, GL granular layer, HRM hook region membrane, IE inner envelope, LH lateral hooks, MH median hooks, OE outer envelope, OM oncospheral membrane, PG penetration glands, SC somatic cells

Fig. 5 in Echinococcus multilocularis (Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea, Taeniidae): origin, differentiation and functional ultrastructure of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane

Fig. 5 High-power TEM micrographs showing ultrastructural details of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane. a Note two oblique sections of blades of the oncospheral hooks (HBl), surrounded by numerous long microvilli (Mv) which protrude into large cavity situated under the hook region membrane (HRM) and oncospheral membrane (OM). b Oblique section through the hook region membrane showing hook blade exit and oncospheral tegument with numerous long microvilli at its surface. DR desmosome rings, HM hook musculature, IE inner envelope

Fig. 4 in Echinococcus multilocularis (Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea, Taeniidae): origin, differentiation and functional ultrastructure of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane

Fig. 4 Consecutive stages of a tegumental perikaryon migration. a Part of an embryo in the early preoncospheral stage of development showing much infolded oncospheral membrane and the binucleate perikaryon (BSP) of the oncospheral tegument in the early stage of its migration, sunken already below the peripheral layers of oncospheral musculature. b Part of the late stage of preoncospheral differentiation showing the binucleate perikaryon of oncospheral tegument sunk deep into the central part of the embryo and surrounded by differentiating blastomeres. H oncospheral hooks, HCF hook forming cell, HRM hook region membrane, IE inner envelope, N1, N2, nucleus, OE outer envelope, OM oncospheral membrane, SC somatic cells

Fig. 3 in Echinococcus multilocularis (Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea, Taeniidae): origin, differentiation and functional ultrastructure of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane

Fig. 3 Comparison of an early and advanced preoncospheral stage of embryonic development in Echinococcus multilocularis. a Ultrastructure of an embryo in the early preoncospheral stage of embryonic development. Note the binucleate complex primordium (PBC), which appears as a syncytial cap or "calotte" situated beneath the inner envelope (IE) at one pole of the developing embryo; two thick arrows mark the direction of progressive migration of both nuclei (N1, N2) surrounded by a thin layer of common cytoplasm and become transformed into the binucleate subtegumental perikaryon. b Part of the embryo in the advanced stage of preoncosphere showing the binucleate subtegumental perikaryon (BSP) of the tegumental syncytium sunk deep into the central part of the embryo and surrounded by differentiating blastomeres. Bl blastomere, C vitelline capsule, EmB embryophoric blocks, GL granular layer, H oncospheral hooks, HM hook muscles, HRM hook region membrane, KI keratin-like protein islands, MeN mesomere nucleus, OE outer envelope, OM oncospheral membrane, PG penetration gland, UW uterine wall

Fig. 2 in Echinococcus multilocularis (Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea, Taeniidae): origin, differentiation and functional ultrastructure of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane

Fig. 2 Schematic diagram illustrating the general topography of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane in relation to the oncospheral hooks, penetration gland arms and glandular exits in the mature intrauterine eggs. All structures involved in formation of the oncospheral tegument and hook region membrane are marked in orange colour. BSP binucleate subtegumental perikaryon, HRM hook region membrane, IE inner envelope LH lateral hooks, MH median hooks, Mv microvilli, N1, N2 nucleus, OT oncospheral tegument, PGA penetration glands arms

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Fig. 12. The comparative ultrastructural data. A in Triassic coleoid beaks and other structures from the Calcareous Alps revisited

Fig. 12. The comparative ultrastructural data. A. The hypothesized "beaks of Phragmoteuthis bisinuata" (GBW 2006/011/0009, lower Carnian, Upper Triassic; Cave del Predil, NE Italy). B. Chitin of the lower beak of Lunzoteuthis schindelbergensis Doguzhaeva, Summesberger, and Mutvei, 2006 (NHMW 2005z0005/0001, lower Carnian, Upper Triassic; Schindelberg, Lower Austria). C. A cartilage of the cranial capsule of Loligo vulgaris (Lamarck, 1798) ( Recent; North Sea); C1, C2, a matrix containing the collagen fibers showing a banding pattern. SEM images, except C1 which is taken with photomicroscope. Dockery III, and Ciampaglio, 2010, from the Mississippi, USA (Weaver et al. 2011). The fin-supporting cartilages of the middle Olenekian (early Triassic) squid of Idahoteuthis parisiana (Decabrachia: Myopsida) from Idaho, USA, are ones of the as yet known oldest fossilized cartilaginous structures (Doguzhaeva et al. 2018). We also revealed that the site of the "beaks of P. bisinuata" (at the tip of a proostracum) may be occupied with another structures of similar size. These are the gladius and arm crown imprint (Figs. 2B, 14). They apparently represent the remains of another prey of P. bisinuata, also held by its handle hooks. This find points out an as yet unknown teuthid resembling the early Permian Glochinomorpha stifeli Gordon, 1971 (see Doguzhaeva and Mapes 2015: figs. 1A–H, 2, 3). Thus, in the light of new ultrastructural and geochemical data on the "beaks of P. bisinuata", morphological data on the upper beak of the reported Anisian (Middle Triassic) coleoid beak from Italy, and previously observed lower beak of co-occurring Lunzoteuthis schindelbergensis, P. bisinuata had hardly differed by its beaks from other coleoids. The discussed black structures associated with the proostraca of the early Carnian P. bisinuata, previously con- Fig. 13. Coleoid cephalopod Lunzoteuthis schindelbergensis Doguzhaeva, sidered to be the "beaks of P. bisinuata" (Figs. 2A, 2C, 3A), Summesberger, and Mutvei, 2006 (holotype, NHMW 2005z0005/0001); 1 lower Carnian, Upper Triassic; Schindelberg, Lower Austria. SEM image are known by seven specimens from the Cave del Predil lo- of a fractured lower beak in a contact with the phragmocone. Abbreviations: cality, although the number of specimens with other non-bio- il, inner lamella of the lower beak; ol, outer lamella of the lower beak; ph, mineralized structures, like ink sacs and arm hooks, is about phragmocone; r, rostrum of the lower (ventral) beak; w, wing of the beak. the same in both localities. The fish beds of Cave del Predil

Fig. 8 in In situ experiments on the effect of low pH on the ultrastructure of the seagrasses Cymodocea nodosa and Posidonia oceanica Abstract

Fig. 8: A-H. TEM micrographs of young epidermal cells of C. nodosa after three weeks transfer at S2 area. A. Surface view of epidermal cells. They are disorganized and most of the organelles are not easily seen. B. Epidermal cell with wavy cell walls and a central nucleus with loose and partially disrupted nuclear membrane. C. A group of peripherally distributed mitochondria containing a rather amorphous mass of destroyed cristae. D. Dictyosome with rounded and loose cisternae. E. Disorganized chloroplasts with remnants of thylakoids and starch grains. F. Cortical cytoplasmic area with disorganized mitochondria and inflated ER fragments. G. Higher magnification of inflated fragments of RER with attached electron-dense material. H. ER membrane-like network with projecting edges filled with electron-dense material. Scale bars = 2 μm (A), 1μm (B) 0.5μm (C), 0.2 (D, E, F) and 0.1 (G, H).

Fig. 6 in In situ experiments on the effect of low pH on the ultrastructure of the seagrasses Cymodocea nodosa and Posidonia oceanica Abstract

Fig. 6: A-E. TEM micrographs of young epidermal cells of C. nodosa after three weeks transfer at S1 area. A. Group of epidermal cells that appear empty, with most of the cell elements disorganized and distorted. B. Higher magnification of a nucleus with condensed masses of chromatin which covered most of the nucleoplasm. The nuclear membrane appears loose and discontinuous. C. Cytoplasmic area showing dictyosomes with few cisternae and numerous swollen fragments of rough ER (RER) D. Fragmented ER membranes traversing the cortical cytoplasm. E. Disorganized chloroplasts with large starch grains surrounded by a system of electron-dense elongated or round plastoglobuli. Mitochondria with a few broken and sometimes dilated cristae are also observed. Scale bars = 1 μm (A), 0.5μm (B, C, E) and 0.2μm (D).

Fig. 5 in In situ experiments on the effect of low pH on the ultrastructure of the seagrasses Cymodocea nodosa and Posidonia oceanica Abstract

Fig. 5: A-C. TEM micrographs of young epidermal cells of P. oceanica after one week transfer at S2 area. A. Epidermal cell with increased number of chloroplasts and mitochondria. B. Chloroplast with oval-shaped and rod-like plastoglobuli around starch grains. Mitochondria with very few fragmented cristae are also visible. C. Dictyosomes and fragmented ER network extended along the cell periphery. Scale bars = 1 μm (A), and 0.5μm (B, C).

Fig. 9 in In situ experiments on the effect of low pH on the ultrastructure of the seagrasses Cymodocea nodosa and Posidonia oceanica Abstract

Fig. 9: A-F. TEM micrographs of young epidermal cells of P. oceanica after three weeks transfer at S2 area. A. Group of epidermal cells that appear distorted, with wavy cell walls. B. Part of an epidermal cell with a central nucleus with disorganized nuclear membrane. The nucleus is surrounded by remnants of cell organelles and an electron-dense ER network. C. Chloroplasts with remnants of thylakoids and plastoglobuli, and disorganized mitochondria. Both appear empty and destroyed. D. Starch grains from disorganized chloroplasts appear dispersed in the cytoplasm. E. Cytoplasmic area with structures of ER network connected and/or filled with electron-dense material. F. Higher magnification of inflated, swollen RER cisternae, filled with electron-dense material. Scale bars = 2 μm (A), 1μm (B) 0.2 (C, D, E,) and 0.1 (F).

Fig. 1 in In situ experiments on the effect of low pH on the ultrastructure of the seagrasses Cymodocea nodosa and Posidonia oceanica Abstract

Fig. 1: A-E. TEM micrographs of young epidermal cells of C. nodosa control material. A. Paradermal section of an epidermal cell. Note its orthogonal shape, the dense cytoplasm, and the large nucleus occupying most of the cell space. B. Higher magnification of the peripheral part of the cell of Fig. A, showing the cell wall and cortical endoplasmic reticulum (ER). C. Cytoplasmic area taken from a plant transferred for one week to S1 area. Note the increased number of mitochondria, dictyosomes and ER, compared to the control. D. Epidermal cell after transfer for one week from S1. It shows a prominent central nucleus, undifferentiated chloroplasts with few grana and an increased number of mitochondria and ER membranes. E. Higher magnification of a cortical cytoplasmic area of a cell like D showing an extended ER network distributed in the cell periphery. Scale bars = 2 μm (A), 1μm (D) and 0.2μm (B, C, E).

Fig. 3 in In situ experiments on the effect of low pH on the ultrastructure of the seagrasses Cymodocea nodosa and Posidonia oceanica Abstract

Fig. 3: A-E. Interphase epidermal cells of young leaves under different pH levels. In all figures, green represents tubulin immunofluorescence and blue represents Hoechst staining of DNA. A. Transfer of CN to pH 7.8 for 1 week: thick MT bundles showing a slightly aberrant orientation. B. Transfer of PO to pH 7.8 for 1 week: MT bundles oriented perpendicularly to the long leaf axis. C. Transfer of CN to pH 6.8 for 1 week: fragmented MT bundles with slightly aberrant orientations. D. Transfer of CN to pH 7.8 for 3 weeks: short, fragmented, and curved MT bundles with aberrant orientations. E. Transfer of PO at pH 7.8 for 3 weeks: depolymerization and disassembly of interphase MTs with loss of proper orientation. Scale bar = 10 μm.