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Figure 6 in An XXL-CT-scan of an XXL Tyrannosaurus rex skull
Figure 6 (left) shows a 3D-rendering of the same dataset. To distinguish the different materials a false-color representation based on the different absorption values of the materials were used. The virtually removed sideways uncovers the wrapping around the skull and sandstone block as well as the additional wooden supporting structures. Figure 6 (right) cuts through the crate in lateral direction and shows the interior of the skull and sandstone block. The white colored structure marks the bone fragments. The next step was to virtually excavate the skull. The good material contrast made it possible to mask out the bulk of the sandstone matrix and the supporting structures by setting appropriate thresholds. High absorption parts like the screws as well as noise particles had to be removed manually. The result of this segmentation can be seen in figure 7. At this stage the segmented skull is still represented by three dimensional pixels (Voxels) with a specific absorption value. To allow for further processing in CAD software e.g. for 3D-printing preparation the segmented skull was converted to a triangular surface mesh in the stl Format.
Fig. 5 in An XXL-CT-scan of an XXL Tyrannosaurus rex skull
Fig. 5. CT slice through the skull. The skull bones clearly stand out from the sandstone matrix and the supporting structures.
Fig. 4 in An XXL-CT-scan of an XXL Tyrannosaurus rex skull
Fig. 4. Top view of crate with skull included when scanning in natural orientation (left) and upright orientation (right). The arrow marks the estimated maximum penetration length for both setups.
in millimeters measurements all, specimens rex Tyrannosaurus other and 2523.8 P RSM of measurements Select. 1 TABLE in An Older and Exceptionally Large Adult Specimen of Tyrannosaurus rex
in millimeters measurements all, specimens rex Tyrannosaurus other and 2523.8 P RSM of measurements Select. 1 TABLE
Figure 2 in Tyrannosaurus rex runs again: a theoretical analysis of the hypothesis that full-grown large theropods had a locomotory advantage to hunt in a shallow-water environment
Figure 2. Depiction of the measurements (a, b, h) taken from figures in the paper by Bates et al. (2009) and the methods to estimate wetted areas and volumes from cylindrical slices. A representative example of the methods (best reconstruction of Tyrannosaurus rex BHI 3033) is shown. The silhouettes were modified from fig. 5 in the paper by Bates et al. (2009). A, cranial view and lateromedial measurements. B, right lateral view and anteroposterior measurements. C, a generic cylindrical slice and the equations to estimate the contribution to the total areas and volumes.
Figure 1 in Tyrannosaurus rex runs again: a theoretical analysis of the hypothesis that full-grown large theropods had a locomotory advantage to hunt in a shallow-water environment
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the hunting scenario. Tyrannosaurus rex is wading in mode II, while Edmontosaurus annectens and Struthiomimus sedens are already engaged in mode IV, corresponding to surface swimming.
Figure 3. A in Tyrannosaurus rex runs again: a theoretical analysis of the hypothesis that full-grown large theropods had a locomotory advantage to hunt in a shallow-water environment
Figure 3. A comparative plot of maximum speed in water as a function of water depth for the three species studied here.
Data for: A diminutive Tyrannosaur lived alongside <em>Tyrannosaurus rex</em>
Open the record for dataset details and reuse information.
Text-fig. 3—Maxilla, TMM 41436-1 (stippled) compared with other tyrannosaurs (sensu Russell, 1970). The height of TMM 41436-1 is used as a standard, a, Tyrannosaurus rex, AMNH 5027, from photograph in Osborn (1912). b, Daspletosaurus torosus, NMC 8506, modified from Russell (1970). c, Albertosaurus libratus, FMNH PR 308, from AMNH negative No. 39113. in Tyrannosaurus and Torosaurus, Maestrichtian Dinosaurs From Trans-Pecos, Texas
Text-fig. 3—Maxilla, TMM 41436-1 (stippled) compared with other tyrannosaurs (sensu Russell, 1970). The height of TMM 41436-1 is used as a standard, a, Tyrannosaurus rex, AMNH 5027, from photograph in Osborn (1912). b, Daspletosaurus torosus, NMC 8506, modified from Russell (1970). c, Albertosaurus libratus, FMNH PR 308, from AMNH negative No. 39113.
Text-fig. 4—Growth changes in the maxilla of three species of carnivorous dinosaurs. Acronyms: H, height of the maxilla at the anterior edge of the first antorbital fenestra; LSAF, length of the second antorbital fenestra; TRL, tooth row length, a, size of the second antorbital fenestra relative to the size of the maxilla, b, rectangularity of the maxilla relative to size. in Tyrannosaurus and Torosaurus, Maestrichtian Dinosaurs From Trans-Pecos, Texas
Text-fig. 4—Growth changes in the maxilla of three species of carnivorous dinosaurs. Acronyms: H, height of the maxilla at the anterior edge of the first antorbital fenestra; LSAF, length of the second antorbital fenestra; TRL, tooth row length, a, size of the second antorbital fenestra relative to the size of the maxilla, b, rectangularity of the maxilla relative to size.
Text-fig. 2—Tyrannosaurus rex Osborn, TMM 41436-1, left maxilla, a, lateral view, b, medial view. x 1/4. in Tyrannosaurus and Torosaurus, Maestrichtian Dinosaurs From Trans-Pecos, Texas
Text-fig. 2—Tyrannosaurus rex Osborn, TMM 41436-1, left maxilla, a, lateral view, b, medial view. x 1/4.
FIG. 1 in Bite-force estimation for Tyrannosaurus rex from tooth-marked bones
FIG. 1 Triceratops sp. pelvis in ventrolateralview bearing bite ma rks from an adult Tyrannosaurus rex. The sacrum and left ilium (Museu m of the Rockies specimen MOR 799, Montana State University, Bozeman, Mn have 58 definitive bite marks attributable to ' punctu re and pull' biting behaviou r by the feedin g tyrannosaur (s) 8 • Arrows denote some of the more cons picuous bite marks. Brackets bound a region where the tyrannosaur(s) removed a pproximately one-sixth of the anterior portion of the iliu m by mea ns of repetitive biti ng. Scale ba r, 25cm.
METHODS. Bovine ilia were used in the simulations because their histological structure (a fibrolamellar cortex overlying cancellous bone26) was found to match that of the Triceratops ilium. Bone sections 10 x 50 x 縠 3.0 cm with cortices ranging from 0.5 to 5.5 mm in depth (the range of initial cortical-thickness estimates based on gross morphology) were mounted on a servohydraulic mechanical loading frame (MTS Bionix, Minneapolis) and penetrated with an aluminium-bronze T. rex tooth replica. The replica was cast from an actual adult T. rex maxillary tooth, after casts made from some ofthe deeper bite marks revealed the size and shape of the teeth that had impacted the pelvis8 • The replica was penetrated into the ilia sections at 1 mm s-1 to a depth of 11.5 mm, equivalent to the maximum depth of the deepest ilium bite mark8 • Forces were measured with an MTS 25 N strain-gauge-based axial load cell accurate to 0.2%. The forces increased with increasing penetration depth even after the cortical layer had been perforated and the underlying cancellous bone was being crushed. The increase in force with penetration depth is attributed to a greater cortical surface area coming into contact with the semi-conical penetrator tooth as it descended through the ilia. in Bite-force estimation for Tyrannosaurus rex from tooth-marked bones
METHODS. Bovine ilia were used in the simulations because their histological structure (a fibrolamellar cortex overlying cancellous bone26) was found to match that of the Triceratops ilium. Bone sections 10 x 50 x 縠 3.0 cm with cortices ranging from 0.5 to 5.5 mm in depth (the range of initial cortical-thickness estimates based on gross morphology) were mounted on a servohydraulic mechanical loading frame (MTS Bionix, Minneapolis) and penetrated with an aluminium-bronze T. rex tooth replica. The replica was cast from an actual adult T. rex maxillary tooth, after casts made from some ofthe deeper bite marks revealed the size and shape of the teeth that had impacted the pelvis8 • The replica was penetrated into the ilia sections at 1 mm s-1 to a depth of 11.5 mm, equivalent to the maximum depth of the deepest ilium bite mark8 • Forces were measured with an MTS 25 N strain-gauge-based axial load cell accurate to 0.2%. The forces increased with increasing penetration depth even after the cortical layer had been perforated and the underlying cancellous bone was being crushed. The increase in force with penetration depth is attributed to a greater cortical surface area coming into contact with the semi-conical penetrator tooth as it descended through the ilia.
FIG. 2 in Bite-force estimation for Tyrannosaurus rex from tooth-marked bones
FIG. 2 Typical force against penetration curves produced during the penetration of bovine ilia by an adult Tyrannosaurus rex tooth replica. The two curves represent simulations conducted on samples with 2.5-mm thick cortices.
FIG. 3 in Bite-force estimation for Tyrannosaurus rex from tooth-marked bones
FIG. 3 Maximum penetration force values for an adult Tyrannosaurus rex tooth replica impacted through bovine ilia with varying cortical thickness. Peak penetration forces increased with increasing cortical thickness (y = 2305.402x + 646.634, r 2 = 0.91). METHODS Because of the 7-fold range of peak force values in the simulations, it was necessary to obtain precise measurements of the cortical depths penetrated by the T. rex teeth. A bone sample taken adjacent to the deepest bite mark revealed a 2.5 mm cortical thickness, From the regression equation, approximately 6,410 N offorce was required to produce the bite mark. This bite mark was made by one of the tyrannosaur's longer caniniform teeth 8, probably a tooth between the fourth and seventh maxillary positions (based upon American Museum of Natural History specimen AMNH 5027, New York). To account for the relative mechanical advantage of more posteriorly positioned teeth 27, moment calculations were used to calculate the simultaneous forces produced at the most posterior tooth positions. Values ranging from 7,870-10,300 N were projected, assuming 6,410 N of force were produced simultaneously by teeth from the fourth to seventh tooth positions. Because bone strength increases with strain rate 28 and the penetration rate of the tooth replica was just 1 mm s- 1, it is likely that the simulation force values underestimated actual forces. A tooth-impact velocity of 10 mm s-1 for a biting tyrannosaur (based on extant large reptile feeding; G.M.E., personal observations) would have required ~20% more bite force 28 • Adhering flesh 8 may have absorbed another 10% (or more) of the initial bite force 29. These considerations suggest that bite forces as high as 13,400 N could have been produced by an adult T. rex during feeding. Greater forces may have been possible during snapping bites or those involving bodily inertia to augment tooth penetration. Such biting is characteristically used when prey are seized initially (G.M.E., personal observations of reptilian feeding). Taphonomic interpretations suggest that the bite marks on the Triceratops ilium were not the result of this behaviour8. Additionally, if the tyrannosaur's contra lateral teeth were used when the deepest bite mark was made, greater bite forces may have been generated than those we estimated 13·30. This is indeterminable from MOR 799.
FIGURE 2 in Body Mass, Bone "Strength Indicator," and Cursorial Potential of Tyrannosaurus rex
FIGURE 2. CT-scan image of the femoral midshaft of MOR 555, showing crushing of the bone, and some of the traverses (white lines) across the femoral cortex used to estimate cortical thickness.
FIGURE 1. Matt B in Body Mass, Bone "Strength Indicator," and Cursorial Potential of Tyrannosaurus rex
FIGURE 1. Matt B. Smith's model restoration of Tyrannosaurus rex, based on MOR 555, as seen in side (A), dorsal (B), and anterior (C) views. Photographs by Bruce Selyem; used by permission of the Museum of the Rockies (photograph numbers PM:39-5, 39-7, 39-10).
FIGURE 4 in Body Mass, Bone "Strength Indicator," and Cursorial Potential of Tyrannosaurus rex
FIGURE 4. Simple model of the vertical force acting on an animal as it hits the ground at the end of a fall. The model can be applied either to the torso of the animal or to its head. The parameters of the model are described in the text.
FIGURE 3 in Bite marks attributable to Tyrannosaurus rex: preliminary description and implications
FIGURE 3. Comparison of a maxillary lateral tooth from an adult Tyrannosaurus rex (cast on left: UCMP 118742) to a cast of a puncture mark taken from the right lateral side of the Triceratops sacrum (cast on right). A, Lateral view of the tooth casts showing their similarity in size and morphology. B, Posterior view showing their similarity in size and morphology. Arrow denotes the carina on the cast from the Triceratops pelvis. Scale = 2.0 cm.
Figure 1.26. Wyrex, BHI 6230 in One Hundred Years of Tyrannosaurus rex: The Skeletons
Figure 1.26. Wyrex, BHI 6230, excavation (A); skin impression (B); left carpals and metacarpals (C); right pes (D).
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