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Fig. 3. A B in A 3D interactive method for estimating body segmental parameters in animals: Application to the turning and running performance of Tyrannosaurus rex

Fig. 3. A B-spline solid can have its boundary surface tessellated into triangles of different resolution. The more triangles are used, the better the approximation of a smooth surface can be achieved. Ostrich trunk models from Table 1 shown with increasing number of triangles: in lateral view (from A to F) and in dorsal view (from G to L). The warped appearances of the models are not errors but reflect the complex 3D surface of the dissected ostrich carcass, and the difficulty of representing this surface with simpler geometry.

FIGURE 7 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 7. Positional variation in carina placement and orientation of Tyrannosaurus rex. Right maxilla (A) and left dentary (B) in palatal view (composite photo traces of AMNH 5027). C, the mesial right maxillary dentition of LACM 23844 in labial view (arrows indicate distal carinae, which are forming the distal edges of the labial faces of the teeth by mx3). D, the mesial left dentary dentition of FMNH PR2081 in labial view (arrows indicate distal carinae).

FIGURE 15 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 15. Curvature profiles in pm1 and d1 of Tyrannosaurus rex. A, Lpm1 of BHI 3033 in mesial view. B, Ld1 of BHI 3033 in labiodistal view. C, Mesial profiles derived from A and B, scaled to the same size. Scale bars equal 1 cm.

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Fig. 6 in A 3D interactive method for estimating body segmental parameters in animals: Application to the turning and running performance of Tyrannosaurus rex

Fig. 6. Original Tyrannosaurus mass set (Model 1) in right lateral (A), dorsal (B), cranial (C), caudal (D), and oblique right craniolateral (E) views. Not to scale. The odd shape of the hip region in (B) represents the 15° adbuction of the thigh segment (see Section 2), which makes the thigh seem laterally-flared in dorsal view. This is also evident in the abducted positions of the lower legs and feet in C–E. It is not yet clear precisely how theropod dinosaur hindlimb joints (especially the hip and knee) brought the feet close to the body midline (e.g., Paul, 1988; Hutchinson et al., 2005), so our model was left with its feet in an abducted position (making it easiest to edit 3D leg dimensions), which had no important effects on our results.

Fig. 1 in Molecular phylogenetics of Mastodon and Tyrannosaurus rex

Fig. 1. Inferred evolutionary relationships of major vertebrate groups hypothesized from collagen al(I) and a2(I) protein data by using a Bayesian approach. The node (bifurcation) labels are measures of support, which indicate the proportion of trees in the posterior distribution to containing the node. Branch lengths are in expected changes per site.

FIGURE 2 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 2. Crown size (in mm) variability profiles, with respect to tooth position, for CBL (A), CBW (B), CH (C), and AL (D) of Tyrannosaurus rex. E, crown size (CBL, CBW, CH, and AL, in mm) comparisons for T. rex tooth classes. See Supplementary Data 1, www.vertpaleo.org/jvp/ JVPcontents.html, for data. Error bars = +/− 1 standard deviation.

FIGURE 10 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 10. Distal set morphology in Tyrannosaurus rex. A, Rmx5 of AMNH 5027 in mesial view. B, Rmx5 of LACM 23844 in labial view. C, Lmx5–7 of CM 9380 in lingual view. D, Rmx6 of SDSM 12047 in lingual view. E, Lmx7 of MOR 555 in labial view. F, Lmx8 of MOR 555 in mesial view. G, Lmx9 of BHI 3033 in distal view. H, Rmx10–12 of FMNH PR2081 in labial view.

FIGURE 3 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 3. Premaxillary crown morphologies in Tyrannosaurus rex. A, Lpm2 of AMNH 5027 in labial view. B, Rpm1 and Rpm3 of BHI 3033 in lingual view. Scale bar equals 5 mm.

FIGURE 9 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 9. Mesial set morphology in Tyrannosaurus rex. A, Rmx1–3 of FMNH PR2081 in labial view. B, Lmx1 of SDSM 12047 in distal view. C, Lmx3 of AMNH 5027 in mesial view. Arrows show carinae.

FIGURE 6 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 6. Denticle size comparisons and variability profiles, with respect to tooth position, for MAVG (A), DAVG (B), and DSDI (C) of Tyrannosaurus rex. See methods for units. See Supplementary Data 1, www.vertpaleo.org/jvp/JVPcontents.html, for data. Error bars equal +/− 1 standard deviation.

FIGURE 14 in Heterodonty in Tyrannosaurus rex: Implications for the taxonomic and systematic utility of theropod dentitions

FIGURE 14. Distal dentary set morphology in Tyrannosaurus rex. A, Rd4–5 of SDSM 12047 in labial view (arrow indicates carina location). B, Ld6–9 of FMNH PR2081 in labial view. C, Ld7 of BMNH R5863 in mesial view. D, Ld6 of FMNH PR2081 in distal view. E, Ld10 of SDSM 12047 in mesial view. F, Rd12 of AMNH 5027 in labial view. G, Ld13 of BHI 3033 in labial view.

Figure 11.10 in Rex, sit: digital modeling of Tyrannosaurus rex at rest

Figure 11.10. Elevation of the posterior while anchoring the anterior body by the forelimbs, creating a pose much like a sprint start. The mechanical advantage of a secondclass lever is provided during extension of the hind limbs in raising the COM. With sufficient elevation achieved, the animal could push back and regain bipedal balance, and complete its ascent to a standing pose.

Figure 11.6 in Rex, sit: digital modeling of Tyrannosaurus rex at rest

Figure 11.6. With the body mass supported by the pubic boot, the hind limbs appear to have been able to shift from (A) a sitting position (with hip flexed) to (B) kneeling on one knee or (C) both knees, without having to lift the body weight off of the pubic boot. Although the axislike insertion of the femur head within acetabulum suggests little femoral abduction was possible, there was likely sufficient flexibility to provide lateral stability. Moreover, the posterolateral angulation of the acetabular axis caused the knees to splay with femoral protracted, again aiding stability against lateral tipping in addition to clearing the rib cage as necessary in locomotion.

Figure 10.15 in Looking again at the forelimb of Tyrannosaurus rex

Figure 10.15. Reconstructed of forelimb and pectoral girdle musculature in Tyrannosaurus based on results of Figures 10.13 and 10.14. Deep muscles in lateral (A) and anterior (B) views; intermediate muscles in lateral (C) and anterior (D) views; surficial muscles in lateral (E) and anterior (F) views. Scale in centimeters. Abbreviations: b, M. brachialis; bb, M. biceps brachii; cb, M. coracobrachialis brevis; cbd, M. coracobrachialis brevis dorsalis; dc, M. deltoideus davicularis; ds, M. deltoideus scapularis; hr, M. humeroradialis; Id, tendon for M. latissimus dorsi; p, M. pectoralis; sb, M. supracoracoideus brevis; sc, M. scapulohumeralis cranialis; sed, M. scapulohumeralis caudalis; sci, M. supracoracoideus intermedius; si, M. supracoracoideus longus; tbi, M. triceps brevis intermedius; tll, M. triceps longus lateralis; tm, M. terres major. Terminology adapted from Meers (2003).

Figure 10.13 in Looking again at the forelimb of Tyrannosaurus rex

Figure 10.13. Deformation of a crocodilian and avian scapula and coracoid (SC) to approximate that of Tyrannosaurus. Wavy vertical lines show direction and degree of morphing. This method allows for the prediction of the position and shape of various muscles on the Tyrannosaurus SC (see text). (A) Tyrannosaurus scapula-coracoid used as the end point to morphing of the (B) crocodilian and (E) avian pectoral girdles. Note that 2 possible scenarios (C, D) occur in the morphing of the crocodilian SC depending on what portions of the crocodilian scapula is morphed into the acromion process of the Tyrannosaurus scapula. Location of actual muscle scars (G). Abbreviations: bb, M. biceps (continued) brachii; c-M. costocoracoideus; cbd, M. coracobrachialis brevis dorsalis; cbv, M. coracobrachialis brevis ventralis; ce, M. coracobrachialis externus; ch, M. coracohumeralis; dc, M. deltoideus clavicularis; ds, M. deltoideus scapularis; I, M. levator scapulae; rs, M. rhomboideus superficialis; sb, M. supracoracoideus brevis; sc, M. scapulohumeralis cranialis; scd, scapulohumeralis caudalis; se, M. subscapularis externus; si, M. supracoracoideus intermedius; svc, M. subscapularis ventralis cranialis; svt, M. serratus ventralis thoracis; t, M. trapezius; tbclps, M. triceps brachii; caput longus pars scapularis; tll, M. triceps longus lateralis; tm, M. terres major. Figure (B) and terminology adapted from Meers (2003); figure (E) and terminology adapted from Yasuda (2002). Although the terminology is retained for "dorsal" versus "ventral" muscles (e.g., m.c.b. ventralis), the more vertical position of the humerus in Tyrannosaurus indicates a need for modified terminology.

Figure 10.17. A 3-D in Looking again at the forelimb of Tyrannosaurus rex

Figure 10.17. A 3-D representation of the forearm and manus in the Tyrannosaurus rex FMNH PR2081. In (A) lateral, (B) anterior, and (C) reaching views.

Figure 10.11 in Looking again at the forelimb of Tyrannosaurus rex

Figure 10.11. Distal carpal and metacarpals in articulation (BHI 6230). Proximal (A), digit I side (B), extensor side (C), digit III side (D). Scale in centimeters.

Figure 10.18 in Looking again at the forelimb of Tyrannosaurus rex

Figure 10.18. Comparison of forelimb length to hind limb length shows that a progressive reduction in forelimb length does not occur in the Tyrannosauridae. Abbreviations: Gu, Guanlong (basal tyrannosauroid); Go, Gorgosaurus; Da, Daspletosaurus; Ab, Albertosaurus; T, Tyrannosaurus.

Figure 11.9 in Rex, sit: digital modeling of Tyrannosaurus rex at rest

Figure 11.9. (A) Reconstruction of the pectoral girdles and forelimbs based on CT data (except for the radiale and distal carpal, which were reconstructed within Dino- Morph). Three superim- posed poses are assume a symmetrically by left ana right forelimbs. With elbows and manus extended, the forelimbs can act as a jack stand to stabilize the body during ascent, but the line of action of the ground reaction force would have placed the furcula under significant bending stress, consistent with commonly observed healed fractures. Forelimb range of motion estimated in collaboration with Kenneth Carpenter.

Figure 11.2 in Rex, sit: digital modeling of Tyrannosaurus rex at rest

Figure 11.2. (A) Dino Morph model of Tyrannosaurus rex specimen BHI3033 (Stan). The appendicular skeleton and head were digitized whereas the axial skeleton was represented schematic form, with important dimensions (e.g., centrum length, neural spine height, and intervertebral separations) dimensionally accurate. (B) The axial skeleton was laid out with reference to measurements taken from the mount and photographs (see text). Scale bar indicates an overall length of 11.2 m.