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Figure 2 in Coding characters from different life stages for phylogenetic reconstruction: a case study on dragonfly adults and larvae, including a description of the larval head anatomy of Epiophlebia superstes (Odonata: Epiophlebiidae)
Figure 2. Overview of the outer head anatomy of Epiophlebia superstes: A, ventral view with the right part displayed as a three-dimensional reconstruction in order to show the peculiar muscle arrangement of the labial prehensile mask; B, lateral view; C, frontal view; D, dorsal view. Abbreviations: acl, anteclypeus; agp, anterior genal process; antb, antennal base; cl, cleavage line; cr0lb1 + 2, cranial origin of labral muscles 0lb1 and 0lb2; cr0lb5, cranial origin of labral muscle 0lb5; cr0te3, cranial origin of tentorial muscle 0te3; e, eye; fl, flagellum; fr, frons; lbr, labrum; loc, lateral occellus; lp, labial palpus; moc, middle occellus; oc, occiput; ocr, occipital ridge; pcl, postclypeus; pe, pedicellus; prm, prementum; sc, scapus. For muscle references, see text and Table S2. Scale bar: 1 mm.
Figure 1 in Coding characters from different life stages for phylogenetic reconstruction: a case study on dragonfly adults and larvae, including a description of the larval head anatomy of Epiophlebia superstes (Odonata: Epiophlebiidae)
Figure 1. Methodological workflow. In three matrices (AC, NMC, and MC) the full data set of 81 characters was used. The matrices differ in coding strategies. In matrix AC the larvae were coded as independent terminal taxa. In matrix NMC the larvae were omitted, thereby reducing the number of taxa from nine to six. If larval character states differed from adult ones, the character state of the adult was coded (non-multistate approach). In matrix MC we equally incorporated the larval character states into the adult character states, but in cases where larva possess a different character state than the adult these characters were coded as multistate characters. In matrix SC (separate coding) we coded larval and adult characters as separate characters within the same species, which resulted in a higher number of characters. If characters generated by the SC approach showed no variation they were omitted from the analysis, which is why not exactly twice as many characters as in matrices AC and MC are used.
Figure 3 in Coding characters from different life stages for phylogenetic reconstruction: a case study on dragonfly adults and larvae, including a description of the larval head anatomy of Epiophlebia superstes (Odonata: Epiophlebiidae)
Figure 3. SEM micrographs of the outer and three-dimensional reconstructions of the inner anatomy of Epiophlebia superstes. Ventral (A) and dorsolateral (B) view of the mandible (A1, detail of the ventral region of the mandible; B1, detail of the region at the molar base). C, the labral, antennal, tentorial, and pharyngeal musculature in dorsal view. D, the mandibular muscles in dorsofrontal view (D1, same as D in dorsolateral view). E, epipharynx in posterior view (E1, detail of e). F, the labral, antennal, tentorial, and pharyngeal musculature in lateral view. Brain, 0an2, 0lb1, 0bu2, and 0hy2 omitted for clarity. Abbreviations: ata, anterior tentorial arms; br, brain; ct, corpotentorium; dta, dorsal tentorial arms; inc, incisivi; lbr, labrum; le, lateral extension of labrum; mo, mola; pe, pedicellus; phx, pharynx; sc, scapus. For muscle references see text and Table S2. Scale bar: 100 μm.
Data from: Cladistic assignment of specimens to species of the cystoporate bryozoan genera Strotopora Ulrich and Cliotrypa Ulrich and Bassler using gap-coded characters
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Data from: Generalized Frequency Coding: A Method of Preparing Polymorphic Multistate Characters for Phylogenetic Analysis
A new method of coding polymorphic multistate characters for phylogenetic analysis is presented. By dividing such characters into subcharacters, their frequency distributions can be represented with discrete states. Differential weighting is employed to counter the effect of using multiple characters to represent one character. The new method, termed generalized frequency coding (GFC), is potentially superior to previously used methods in that it incorporates more information and can be applied to both qualitative and quantitative characters. The method was applied to a previously published data set that includes both types of polymorphic multistate characters, and performed well according to congruence with other studies and the g1 and nonparametric bootstrap statistics. The data set was also used to compare GFC to both gap-weighting and Manhattan distance step matrix coding. On these grounds and for philosophical reasons, GFC was found to be a better estimator of phylogeny.
Figure 31 in Refining molluscan characters: morphology, character coding and a phylogeny of the Caenogastropoda
Figure 31. Evolution of the foregut. Black hashmarks indicate forward changes, grey hashmarks indicate forward homoplasies (DELTRAN).
Figure 30 in Refining molluscan characters: morphology, character coding and a phylogeny of the Caenogastropoda
Figure 30. Evolution of the nervous system. Black hashmarks indicate forward changes, grey hashmarks indicate forward homoplasies (DELTRAN).
Figure 16 in Refining molluscan characters: morphology, character coding and a phylogeny of the Caenogastropoda
Figure 16. Midgut morphology. White arrows indicate direction of ciliary currents. (A) Neverita duplicata, dorsal view. Scale bar = 1 mm. (B) Cypraea robertsi, dorsal view. Abbreviations: cf, ciliated fold; dgd, digestive gland duct; e, oesophagus; ig, intestinal groove; pyc, pyloric caecum; sa, sorting area; ss, style sac; t1, major typhlosole; t2, minor typhlosole.
Figure 13 in Refining molluscan characters: morphology, character coding and a phylogeny of the Caenogastropoda
Figure 13. Midgut morphology. White arrows indicate direction of ciliary currents. (A) Neocyclotus dysoni ambiguum, dorsal view. (B) Lampanella minima, dorsal view. Scale bar = 1 mm. Abbreviations: cf, ciliated fold; cs, ciliated strip; ctr, ciliary tract; dgd, digestive gland duct; dv, digestive gland vestibule; e, oesophagus; gap, gastric pouch; gp, glandular pad; gs, gastric shield; pyc, pyloric caecum; sa, sorting area; ss, style sac; t1, major typhlosole; t2, minor typhlosole.
Figure 19 in Refining molluscan characters: morphology, character coding and a phylogeny of the Caenogastropoda
Figure 19. Midgut morphology. White arrows indicate direction of ciliary currents. (A) Ilyanassa obsoletus, dorsal view. (B) Urosalpinx cinerea, dorsal view. Scale bar = 1 mm. Abbreviations: ce, caecal extension; dgd, digestive gland duct; e, oesophagus; gp, glandular pad; gs, gastric shield; ig, intestinal groove; int, intestine; po, pouch; sa, sorting area; ss, style sac; t1, major typhlosole; t2, minor typhlosole.
Figure 15 in Refining molluscan characters: morphology, character coding and a phylogeny of the Caenogastropoda
Figure 15. Midgut morphology. White arrows indicate direction of ciliary currents. (A) Bithynia tentaculata, dorsal view. Distal end of gastric chamber obscured in scanning electron micrograph, indicated by dotted line in diagram on right. (B) Littorina littorea, dorsal view. Stippling indicates ciliary tract within gastric chamber extending from oesophageal aperture. Scale bar = 1 mm. Abbreviations: c, caecum; ce, caecal extension; cf, ciliated fold; cs, ciliated strip; ctr, ciliary tract; dgd, digestive gland duct; e, oesophagus; gp, glandular pad; gs, gastric shield; sa, sorting area; ss, style sac; t1, major typhlosole; t2, minor typhlosole.
Data from: Generalized Frequency Coding: A Method of Preparing Polymorphic Multistate Characters for Phylogenetic Analysis
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Figure 27 in Refining molluscan characters: morphology, character coding and a phylogeny of the Caenogastropoda
Figure 27. Phylogeny of the Gastropoda; adapted from Ponder & Lindberg (1997).
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