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204 results for “plant defenses”
Plant volatiles induced by herbivore eggs prime defenses and mediate shifts in the reproductive strategy of receiving plants
<p>Plants can detect cues associated with the risk of future herbivory and modify defense phenotypes accordingly; however, our current understanding is limited both with respect to the range of early warning cues to which plants respond and the nature of the responses. Here we report that exposure to volatile emissions from plant tissues infested with herbivore eggs promotes stronger defense responses to subsequent herbivory in two Brassica species. Furthermore, exposure to these volatile cues elicited an apparent shift from growth to reproduction in Brassica nigra, with exposed plants exhibiting increased flower and seed production, but reduced leaf production, relative to unexposed controls. Our results thus document plant defense priming in response to a novel environmental cue, oviposition-induced plant volatiles, while also showing that plant responses to early warning cues can include changes in both defense and life-history traits.</p>
Date from: Top-down effects from parasitoids may mediate plant defense and plant fitness
<ol> <li>Plants face many environmental stresses that can impact the<span>ir </span><span><span>survival</span></span><span>, developm</span>ent, and fitness. Insects are the most diverse, abundant and threatening herbivores in nature. As a consequence, plants produce direct chemical and physical defenses to reduce herbivory. They also release volatiles to recruit natural enemies that indirectly protect them from herbivory. The recruitment of parasitic wasps can benefit plant fitness because they ultimately kill their insect hosts.</li> <li>Recently, studies showed that parasitoids can indirectly mediate plant defenses by modulating herbivore oral secretions. In addition to the direct benefits of parasitoids in terms of reducing herbivore survival, we tested if the reduction in induced defenses by parasitized caterpillars compared to non-parasitized caterpillars may reduce the costs associated with defense expression.</li> <li>We provide evidence that tomato plants treated with saliva from parasitized caterpillars have significantly higher fitness parameters including increased flower numbers (16.3%) and heavier fruit weight (15%), compared to plants treated with saliva from non-parasitized caterpillars. Since plants were grown without actual herbivores, the higher values for these fitness parameters were due to lower costs of induced defenses and not due to reduced herbivory by parasitized caterpillars. Furthermore, the resulting seed germination time was shorter and the germination rate was higher when the maternal plants were previously exposed to parasitized herbivore treatment compared to control (non-treated) plants.</li> <li>Overall, application of saliva did not result in transgenerational priming of offspring defense responses. However, offspring of parents exposed to caterpillar saliva had lower constitutive levels and higher induced levels of trypsin inhibitor than offspring from unexposed parents.</li> <li>This study shows that the saliva of parasitized caterpillars can modulate plant defenses and further demonstrates that the lower induction of plant defenses is associated with elevated plant fitnes<span>s </span><span><span>in the absence of herbivore feeding</span></span><span>, sugge</span>sting that induced plant defenses are costly. </li> </ol>
Optimal Defense Theory in an ant‐plant mutualism: extrafloral nectar as an induced defense is maximized in the most valuable plant structures
<ol> <li class="Normal1">Optimal Defense Theory (ODT) predicts that to maximize the benefits of defense against herbivores while minimizing its costs, plants will <span><span>invest in defenses</span></span> to structures according to their value and to the likelihood that they will be attacked. Constitutive defenses are expected in structures of high value, whereas induced defenses are expected in structures of low value. Regarding the biotic defense mediated by extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) and based on ODT, we predicted that under control conditions EFNs on higher-value structures would produce more nectar than would EFNs on lower-value structures, attracting more ants; however, when damaged, EFNs on higher-value structures would not increase the production of extrafloral nectar (since constitutive defenses should be employed in this region), whereas EFNs on lower-value structures would so (since induced defenses should be employed in this region), at a level commensurate with the extent of damage. </li> <li class="Normal1">Here we test these predictions in a Brazilian ant-plant mutualism. <i>Qualea multiflora</i> (Vochysiaceae), a savanna tree, presents EFNs on both lower-value structures (leaves) and higher-value structures (inflorescences). We simulated herbivory by cutting 10% or 40% of the leaves, or 10% of the flowers, then monitoring extrafloral nectar production and ant attendance. </li> <li class="Normal1">Extrafloral nectar volume and calorie content, as well as ant abundance, were higher in EFNs of inflorescences compared to EFNs of leaves both before and after simulated herbivory, consistent with one of our predictions. However, EFNs on both leaves and inflorescences, not leaves only, were induced by simulated herbivory, a pattern opposite to our prediction. Plants subjected to higher levels of leaf damage (i.e., more damage to lower-value tissues) <span><span>produced more and higher-calorie extrafloral nectar, but showed similar ant abundance, partially consistent with our prediction</span></span>. </li> <li class="Normal1"><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>Our results show that extrafloral nectar production before and after simulated herbivory, as well as the ant recruitment, vary according to the plant structure on which EFNs are located. Our study is unique showing that ant recruitment via extrafloral nectar follows predictions from Optimal Defense Theory, and that the ant foraging patterns may be shaped by the level and region damaged in the plant.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></li> </ol>
United we stand: evolution of increased competitive response and defense in response to crowding in an invasive plant
<p>1. The evolution of increased competitive ability (EICA) hypothesis predicts that invasive plant could evolve to be more competitive but be less defended as a result of releasing from their natural enemies, yet this hypothesis has rarely been addressed in density-dependence.</p> <p>2. Here, we grew five native (Argentina) and five introduced (USA) genotypes of perennial herb invasive plant <i>Alternanthera philoxeroides</i>, using an experimental setup that simulated different levels of neighbours heights and densities.</p> <p>3. Our results showed that introduced and native genotypes responded differently to changes in density: when neighbours were denser, introduced genotypes showed increases in total biomass, trichome density and triterpenoid saponins than native genotypes, but constants in shade-avoidance-related traits.</p> <p>4. Contrary to the predictions of EICA hypothesis, our findings contribute to a new pattern of both increased competitive response and defense in introduced populations in response to crowding, and highlight the importance of positive density-dependence in understanding invasive plant–plant interactions.</p>
Plant volatiles mediate evolutionary interactions between plants and tephritid flies and are evolutionarily more labile than non-volatile defenses
<p><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>1. Studies show that plant defenses influence the host-use of herbivores and tend to be evolutionarily more labile than herbivore traits (e.g., feeding preferences). However, all previous studies have focused exclusively on non-volatile plant defenses thereby overlooking the roles of plant volatiles.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>2. We hypothesized that volatiles are equally important determinants of herbivore host-use and are evolutionarily more labile than herbivore traits. To test these hypotheses, the following experiments were conducted.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>3. We identified the volatiles and non-volatiles of 17 Asteraceae species and measured their relative contents. We also used a highly resolved bipartite trophic network of the 17 host species and 20 herbivorous (pre-dispersal seed predator) tephritid fly species to determine the evolutionary interactions between plants and herbivores. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>4. The chemical data showed that interspecific similarity in volatiles—but not non-volatiles and phylogenetic distance—significantly accounted for the herbivore community across the plant species; this implies that plant volatiles—but not non-volatile compounds and species identity—dictate plant-tephritid fly interactions. Moreover, we observed phylogenetic signal for non-volatiles but not for volatiles; therefore closely related herbivores do not necessarily use closely related host species with similar non-volatiles, but do tend to attack plants producing similar volatiles. Thus, plant volatiles are evolutionarily more labile than non-volatiles and herbivore traits associate with host use. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span><span>5. These results show that the interactions between plants and herbivores are evolutionary asymmetric, shed light on the role of plant volatiles in plant-herbivore interactions, and highlight the need to include data for both volatiles and non-volatiles when investigating plant-animal interactions.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
Preference, performance, and chemical defense in an endangered butterfly using novel and ancestral host plants
<p>Adoption of novel host plants by herbivorous insects can require new adaptations and may entail loss of adaptation to ancestral hosts. We examined relationships between an endangered subspecies of the butterfly <i>Euphydryas editha </i>(Taylor's checkerspot) and three host plant species. Two of the hosts (<i>Castilleja hispida, Castilleja levisecta</i>) were used ancestrally while the other, <i>Plantago lanceolata</i>, is exotic and was adopted more recently. We measured oviposition preference, neonate preference, larval growth, and secondary chemical uptake on all three hosts. Adult females readily laid eggs on all hosts but favored <i>Plantago </i>and tended to avoid <i>C. levisecta. </i>Oviposition preference changed over time.<i> </i>Neonates had no preference among host species, but consistently chose bracts over leaves within both <i>Castilleja </i>species. Larvae developed successfully on all species and grew to similar size on all of them unless they ate only <i>Castilleja </i>leaves (rather than bracts) which limited their growth. Diet strongly influenced secondary chemical uptake by larvae. Larvae that ate <i>Plantago </i>or <i>C. hispida </i>leaves contained the highest concentrations of iridoid glycosides, and iridoid glycoside composition varied with host species and tissue type. Despite having largely switched to a novel exotic host and generally performing better on it, this population has retained breadth in preference and ability to use other hosts.</p>
Tomato Plants Treated with Systemin Peptide Show Enhanced Levels of Direct and Indirect Defense Associated with Increased Expression of Defense-Related Genes
<p>Numerical data that underlies tables, graphs and statistics of the Plants article from Coppola et al., 2019: "Tomato Plants Treated with Systemin Peptide Show Enhanced Levels of Direct and Indirect Defense Associated with Increased Expression of Defense-Related Genes".</p>
Data from: Plant defense phenotypes determine the consequences of volatile emission for individuals and neighbors
Plants are at the trophic base of terrestrial ecosystems, and the diversity of plant species in an ecosystem is a principle determinant of community structure. This may arise from diverse functional traits among species. In fact, genetic diversity within species can have similarly large effects. However, studies of intraspecific genetic diversity have used genotypes varying in several complex traits, obscuring the specific phenotypic variation responsible for community-level effects. Using lines of the wild tobacco Nicotiana attenuata genetically altered in specific well-characterized defense traits and planted into experimental populations in their native habitat, we investigated community-level effects of trait diversity in populations of otherwise isogenic plants. We conclude that the frequency of defense traits in a population can determine the outcomes of these traits for individuals. Furthermore, our results suggest that some ecosystem-level services afforded by genetically diverse plant populations could be recaptured in intensive monocultures engineered to be functionally diverse.
Data from: Independent evolution of ancestral and novel defenses in a genus of toxic plants (Erysimum, Brassicaceae)
<p>Phytochemical diversity is thought to result from coevolutionary cycles as specialization in herbivores imposes diversifying selection on plant chemical defenses. Plants in the speciose genus <i>Erysimum</i> (Brassicaceae) produce both ancestral glucosinolates and evolutionarily novel cardenolides as defenses. Here we test macroevolutionary hypotheses on co-expression, co-regulation, and diversification of these potentially redundant defenses across this genus. We sequenced and assembled the genome of <i>E. cheiranthoides</i> and foliar transcriptomes of 47 additional <i>Erysimum</i> species to construct a phylogeny from 9,869 orthologous genes, revealing several geographic clades but also high levels of gene discordance. Concentrations, inducibility, and diversity of the two defenses varied independently among species, with no evidence for trade-offs. Closely related, geographically co-occurring species shared similar cardenolide traits, but not glucosinolate traits, likely as a result of specific selective pressures acting on each defense. Ancestral and novel chemical defenses in <i>Erysimum</i> thus appear to provide complementary rather than redundant functions.</p>
Data from: Transgenerational effects alter plant defense and resistance in nature
Trichomes, or leaf hairs, are epidermal extensions that take a variety of forms and perform many functions in plants, including herbivore defense. In this study, I document genetically determined variation, within-generation plasticity, and a direct role of trichomes in herbivore defense for (Mimulus guttatus). After establishing the relationship between trichomes and herbivory, I test for transgenerational effects of wounding on trichome density and herbivore resistance. Patterns of inter-annual variation in herbivore density and the high cost of plant defense makes plant-herbivore interactions a system in which transgenerational phenotypic plasticity (TPP) is apt to evolve. Here, I demonstrate that parental damage alters offspring trichome density and herbivore resistance in nature. Moreover, this response varies between populations. This is among the first studies to demonstrate that TPP contributes to variation in nature, and also suggests that selection can modify TPP in response to local conditions.
Data from: Strong but opposing effects of associational resistance and susceptibility on defense phenotype in an African savanna plant
The susceptibility of plants to herbivores can be strongly influenced by the identity, morphology, and palatability of neighboring plants. While the defensive traits of neighbors often determine the mechanism and strength of associational resistance and susceptibility, the effect of neighbors on plant defense phenotype remains poorly understood. We used field surveys and a prickle‐removal experiment in a semi‐arid Kenyan savanna to evaluate the efficacy of physical defenses against large mammalian herbivores in a common understory plant, Solanum campylacanthum. We then quantified the respective effects of spinescent Acacia trees and short‐statured grasses on browsing damage and prickle density in S. campylacanthum. We paired measurements of prickle density beneath and outside tree canopies with long‐term herbivore‐exclusion experiments to evaluate whether associational resistance reduced defense investment by decreasing browsing damage. Likewise, we compared defense phenotype within and outside pre‐existing and experimentally created clearings to determine whether grass neighbors increased defense investment via associational susceptibility. Removing prickles increased the frequency of browsing by ~25%, and surveys of herbivory damage on defended leaves suggested that herbivores tended to avoid prickles. As predicted, associational resistance and susceptibility had opposing effects on plant phenotype: individuals growing beneath Acacia canopies (or, analogously, within large‐herbivore exclosures) had a significantly lower proportion of their leaves browsed and produced ca 70–80% fewer prickles than those outside refuges, whereas plants in grass‐dominated clearings were more heavily browsed and produced nearly twice as many prickles as plants outside clearings. Our results demonstrate that associational resistance and susceptibility have strong, but opposing, effects on plant defense phenotype, and that variable herbivore damage is a major source of intraspecific variation in defense phenotype in this system.
Data from: Cascading effects of induced terrestrial plant defenses on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem function
Herbivores induce plants to undergo diverse processes that minimize costs to the plant, such as producing defences to deter herbivory or reallocating limited resources to inaccessible portions of the plant. Yet most plant tissue is consumed by decomposers, not herbivores, and these defensive processes aimed to deter herbivores may alter plant tissue even after detachment from the plant. All consumers value nutrients, but plants also require these nutrients for primary functions and defensive processes. We experimentally simulated herbivory with and without nutrient additions on red alder (Alnus rubra), which supplies the majority of leaf litter for many rivers in western North America. Simulated herbivory induced a defence response with cascading effects: terrestrial herbivores and aquatic decomposers fed less on leaves from stressed trees. This effect was context dependent: leaves from fertilized-only trees decomposed most rapidly while leaves from fertilized trees receiving the herbivory treatment decomposed least, suggesting plants funnelled a nutritionally valuable resource into enhanced defence. One component of the defence response was a decrease in leaf nitrogen leading to elevated carbon : nitrogen. Aquatic decomposers prefer leaves naturally low in C : N and this altered nutrient profile largely explains the lower rate of aquatic decomposition. Furthermore, terrestrial soil decomposers were unaffected by either treatment but did show a preference for local and nitrogen-rich leaves. Our study illustrates the ecological implications of terrestrial herbivory and these findings demonstrate that the effects of selection caused by terrestrial herbivory in one ecosystem can indirectly shape the structure of other ecosystems through ecological fluxes across boundaries.
Fig. 2 in Characterized constituents of insect herbivore oral secretions and their influence on the regulation of plant defenses
Fig. 2. Representative plant defensive metabolites (potential markers) induced upon insect feeding and application of insect OS on wounded plants. Specific group of metabolites are induced in plants belonging to particular families. (a) Solanaceae; terpenoids, phenolics, alkaloids (b) Bracecaceae; glucosinolates, cyanogenic glycosides, saponins and (c) Poaceae; benzoxazinoids.
Fig. 1 in Characterized constituents of insect herbivore oral secretions and their influence on the regulation of plant defenses
Fig. 1. Schematic presentation of identified bioactive molecules from the oral secretion/mouthpart of insects. Active molecules were characterized as inducer or suppressor of plant defense. Fatty acid amino acid conjugates (FACs) elicit volatile emission and isoflavonid synthesis. Proteinaceous elicitors induces Jasmonic acid (JA) and Salicylic acid (SA) biosynthesis and signaling leading to induce plant defense by protease inhibitors synthesis and release of volatiles. The Glucose Oxidase (GOX) induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) through hydrogen peroxide H2O2. Proteinaceous effectors either suppress the hydrogen peroxide H2O2, JA/SA biosynthesis and signaling or the interaction of transcription factors (WRKY) with kinases.
Drought-induced reductions in plant defenses
Extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) are anti-herbivory defense-related glands. We measured morphological and anatomical EFN traits in Pityrocarpa moniliformis trees along a rainfall gradient in Caatinga dry forest. We observed a reduction in structural EFN traits as rainfall decreased. We conclude that this reduction is a cost-saving strategy, probably mediated by ants.
Sequestration of defenses against predators drives specialized host plant associations in preadapted milkweed bugs (Heteroptera: Lygaeinae)
<p class="CxSpFirst">Host plant specialization across herbivorous insects varies dramatically, but while the molecular mechanisms of host-plant adaptations are increasingly known, we often lack a comprehensive understanding of the selective forces that favor specialization. The milkweed bugs (Heteroptera: Lygaeinae) are engaged in ancestrally specialized associations with plants of the Apocynaceae from which they commonly sequester cardiac glycosides for defense, facilitated by resistant Na<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup>-ATPases and adaptations for transport, storage and discharge of toxins. Here, we show that three Lygaeinae species independently colonized four novel non-apocynaceous hosts that convergently produce cardiac glycosides. A fourth species shifted to a new source of toxins by tolerating and sequestering alkaloids from meadow saffron (<i>Colchicum autumnale</i>, Colchicaceae). Across three milkweed bug species tested, feeding on seeds containing toxins did not improve growth or speed of development, and even impaired growth and development in two species, but sequestration mediated protection of milkweed bugs against two natural predators: lacewing larvae and passerine birds. We conclude that physiological preadaptations and convergent phytochemistry facilitated novel specialized host associations. Since toxic seeds did not improve but either impaired growth or at most had neutral effects, selection by predators on sequestration of defenses, rather than the exploitation of additional profitable dietary resources, can lead to obligatory specialized host associations in otherwise generalist insects.</p>
Data from: Metabolomic profiling reveals shifts in defenses of an invasive plant
<p><strong>Abstract</strong>. The Shifting Defense Hypothesis predicts that introduced exotic plants evolve increased defenses against generalist herbivores and decreased defenses against specialists that are often absent in the introduced range. This hypothesis has received mixed evidence, and there is limited insight in its chemical basis from targeted analysis. Here, we provide an untargeted metabolomic analysis of native and invasive Purple Loosestrife populations and we experimentally test if admixture between introduced populations provides a basis for rapid defense chemistry evolution. Invasive populations showed improved growth and generalist herbivore resistance, but lower resistance to a specialist weevil. Metabolomic profiling revealed large shifts in chemistry between native and invasive populations, including differences in alkaloids and flavonoids. Experimental admixture increased chemical diversity and plant growth in the native populations, indicating its potential to fuel rapid evolution, but admixture did not affect generalist and specialist herbivory. Our comprehensive untargeted metabolomics results provide strong support for the Shifting Defense Hypothesis.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Data sets description:</strong></p> <p> </p> <ul> <li>Metabolite data: <strong>LCMS_pos.xlsx</strong> and <strong>LCMS_neg.xlsx</strong></li> </ul> <p>Metabolites were extracted from the 3rd to 4th pairs of leaves (from top to bottom) of experimental <em>Lythrum salicaria</em> plants, which originated from three regions in Europe and three regions in North America, and were analyzed by LC-MS. Electrospray ionization was carried in in positive mode (LCMS_pos.xlsx) and in negative mode (LCMS_neg.xlsx). The LC-MS profiles were analyzed by software SIMCA v13.0, and the number of metabolites and their unique compounds were also classified and analyzed. The data sets show retention times and mass-over-charge ratios (in rows) organized by individual plant samples (in columns). Plant samples were analyzed in four batches (two each for positive and negative mode), and are labeled by their population of origin and cross type:</p> <p>IALS: Iowa – Little South Storm Lake</p> <p>IML: Idaho – Middleton</p> <p>NJS1: New Jersey – Site 1</p> <p>NW: Netherlands – Wageningen</p> <p>PG: Potsdam – Geltow</p> <p>TR: Tübingen – Reusten</p> <p>Intra: sample from intra-population cross</p> <p>Pop: sample from cross between populations from the same region</p> <p>Reg: sample from cross between populations from different regions</p> <p> </p> <ul> <li>Herbivory and plant trait data: <strong>Phenotypes.xlsx</strong></li> </ul> <p>The plant height, main stem width, generalist and specialist feeding results of <em>L. salicaria</em> plants used in the experiments. Data are from individual plants, which are characterized by origin (North America or Europe), Region (three regions per origin), Sample site (three sites per region) and cross type (experimental plant derived from either ‘intrapop’ cross (cross within sample site) or ‘interregion’ cross (cross between sample sites from different regions)).</p> <p>Height: plant height in cm</p> <p>Diameter: main stem diameter in mm</p> <p>Specialist: number of holes eaten on the tested leaf</p> <p>Generalist: total leaf surface area consumed by herboivores (cm2)</p>
Data from: Root inoculation with beneficial soil microbes enhances indirect plant defenses induced by insect feeding and egg deposition
<p>Plants can respond to insect egg deposition by emitting oviposition-induced plant volatiles (OIPVs) recruiting parasitoids. The recruitment of carnivore insects in response to egg deposition is considered an indirect defense strategy that is widespread in the plant kingdom. In recent years, there has been increasing evidence showing that microbial colonization can influence the strength of plant responses to insect herbivory, yet no information is available on how beneficial microbes modulate indirect defenses induced by insect egg deposition. In this work, we evaluated the effects of inoculation with the beneficial soil fungus <em>Trichoderma harzianum</em> strain T22 on a tritrophic system consisting of tomato, the southern green stink bug <em>Nezara viridula</em> and its associated egg parasitoid <em>Trissolcus basalis</em>. We used Y-tube olfactometer assays to evaluate the behavioral responses of the parasitoids to OIPVs emitted by plants colonized with beneficial soil microbes. We also used gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to investigate how root inoculation with <em>T. harzianum</em> T22 affects the chemical composition of induced plant volatiles. 3. In olfactometer assays, we found that root inoculation with <em>T.</em> <em>harzianum</em> T22 enhanced the attraction of the egg parasitoid towards tomato plants induced by <em>N. viridula</em> feeding and oviposition activities. In particular, the egg parasitoid preferred OIPVs emitted by tomato plants previously inoculated with <em>T. harzianum</em> T22 over OIPVs emitted by non-inoculated plants. Furthermore, chemical analysis showed that root inoculation with <em>T. harzianum</em> T22 resulted in changes in the composition of OIPVs, which was consistent with the behavioral observations. Among the compounds that strongly contribute to the chemical differences between OIPVs from non-inoculated and inoculated plants, chemical analysis identified green leaf volatiles ((Z)-3-hepten-1-ol, (E,E)-2,4-hexadienal), along with terpenoids (terpinen 4-ol, α-tujene and δ-elemene). 4. Taken together our results indicate that beneficial soil microbes enhance indirect plant defenses induced by feeding and oviposition, broadening our understanding of plant responses to insect eggs. Our results underscore the importance of taking into account the role of microorganisms to fully comprehend the intricate interactions among plants, herbivore eggs and their associated egg parasitoids.</p>
Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria modulate induced corn defense against Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
<p>Common cutworm, <em>Spodoptera litura</em> is an important pest of corn causing significant crop yield loss. Synthetic insecticides have mostly been used to combat this pest, raising human and environmental health concerns. Plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) could compensate for or augment the harmful effects of agrochemicals. Herein, we aimed to assess whether PGPR-induced defenses in corn plants impact the host-plant selection behavior of <em>S. litura</em>. Headspace volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were analyzed using Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Larvae-fed inoculated corn exhibited lower weights and RGR than non-inoculated plants. Under choice experiments, PGPR-treated plants significantly reduced percentage leaf damage area and oviposition rate compared to untreated plants. VOC ratio emission varied significantly between control and PGPR treatments, which, in part, explains feeding and oviposition deterrence in PGPR-treated plants. The results demonstrate that PGPR inoculation can enhance corn resistance to <em>S. litura</em>, making it a promising candidate for crop protection strategies.</p>
Data from: Plant defenses against ants provide a pathway to social parasitism in butterflies
Understanding the chemical cues and gene expressions that mediate herbivore–host-plant and parasite–host interactions can elucidate the ecological costs and benefits accruing to different partners in tight-knit community modules, and may reveal unexpected complexities. We investigated the exploitation of sequential hosts by the phytophagous–predaceous butterfly Maculinea arion, whose larvae initially feed on Origanum vulgare flowerheads before switching to parasitize Myrmica ant colonies for their main period of growth. Gravid female butterflies were attracted to Origanum plants that emitted high levels of the monoterpenoid volatile carvacrol, a condition that occurred when ants disturbed their roots: we also found that Origanum expressed four genes involved in monoterpene formation when ants were present, accompanied by a significant induction of jasmonates. When exposed to carvacrol, Myrmica workers upregulated five genes whose products bind and detoxify this biocide, and their colonies were more tolerant of it than other common ant genera, consistent with an observed ability to occupy the competitor-free spaces surrounding Origanum. A cost is potential colony destruction by Ma. arion, which in turn may benefit infested Origanum plants by relieving their roots of further damage. Our results suggest a new pathway, whereby social parasites can detect successive resources by employing plant volatiles to simultaneously select their initial plant food and a suitable sequential host.
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