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Supplementary material 1 from: Ruan Y, Konstantinov AS, Shi G, Tao Y, Li Y, Johnson AJ, Luo X, Zhang X, Zhang M, Wu J, Li W, Ge S, Yang X (2020) The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg. ZooKeys 915: 87-105. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.915.38348

: Data type: multimedia

Figure 4 from: Ruan Y, Konstantinov AS, Shi G, Tao Y, Li Y, Johnson AJ, Luo X, Zhang X, Zhang M, Wu J, Li W, Ge S, Yang X (2020) The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg. ZooKeys 915: 87-105. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.915.38348

Figure 4 Take-off strategy of flea beetles (Asiophrida xanthospilota is shown in the photos at the top of the figure). Acceleration data were calculated based on three typical jumps recorded by a high-speed camera. The three different species were chosen to represent flea beetles with different sizes A Phase I (Crunching): tibial flexor muscles contract, causing flexion of the tibia B Phase II (Co-contraction): tibial extensor muscles and tibial flexor muscles contract simultaneously, catching the triangular plate and hindering the extension of the tibia C Phase III (Triggering and Acceleration), the triangular plate is dislodged, causing the explosive release of energy D Phase IV (Relaxation), the flea beetle is catapulted into the air and the muscles begin to relax.

Figure 1 from: Ruan Y, Konstantinov AS, Shi G, Tao Y, Li Y, Johnson AJ, Luo X, Zhang X, Zhang M, Wu J, Li W, Ge S, Yang X (2020) The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg. ZooKeys 915: 87-105. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.915.38348

Figure 1 Jumping apparatus in the flea beetle hind leg. A a model of a generic flea beetle (lateral view), indicating the enlarged hind leg B hind leg of Trachytetra obscura under a light microscope (dark-field microscopy) C–H X-ray computer tomography-based 3D reconstructions of the hind leg of the flea beetle Asiophrida xanthospilotaC lateral view of the hind leg and internal structures D dorsal view of the hind leg E lateral view of the hind leg (view from an opposite direction of inset C) F lateral view of the metafemoral spring G ventral view of the metafemoral spring H femorotibial joint. Abbreviations: epl: elastic plate; piv: tibial pivot of femorotibial joint; tli-1: primary tibial ligament; tli-2: secondary tibial ligament; tpl: Lever's triangular plate.

Supplementary material 4 from: Ruan Y, Konstantinov AS, Shi G, Tao Y, Li Y, Johnson AJ, Luo X, Zhang X, Zhang M, Wu J, Li W, Ge S, Yang X (2020) The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg. ZooKeys 915: 87-105. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.915.38348

: Data type: multimedia

Figure 3 from: Ruan Y, Konstantinov AS, Shi G, Tao Y, Li Y, Johnson AJ, Luo X, Zhang X, Zhang M, Wu J, Li W, Ge S, Yang X (2020) The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg. ZooKeys 915: 87-105. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.915.38348

Figure 3 Variation in the metafemoral spring of different flea beetle species (3D reconstructions). A hind femur of Altica cirsicolaB hind femur of Podontia luteaC hind femur of Psylliodes sp. D hind femur of Nonarthra sp. E hind femur of Clavicornaltica sp. F hind femur of Hespera lomasa. Scale bar: 0.2 mm.

Figure 2 from: Ruan Y, Konstantinov AS, Shi G, Tao Y, Li Y, Johnson AJ, Luo X, Zhang X, Zhang M, Wu J, Li W, Ge S, Yang X (2020) The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg. ZooKeys 915: 87-105. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.915.38348

Figure 2 Internal structures of the hind leg of Altica cirsicola. A the flea beetle Altica sp. on foliage B–F X-ray computer tomography 3D reconstructions of the hind leg of A. cirsicolaB lateral view of the left hind leg C lateral view of the metafemoral spring D distal view of the metafemoral spring E distal view of the metafemoral spring and tibial extensors F features of the femorotibial joint. Abbreviations: cox: coxa; exa: extended arm of the metafemoral spring; epl: elastic plate; fem: femur; msp: metafemoral spring; ner: nerve; piv: tibial pivot of the femorotibial joint; rfl: recurve flange of the metafemoral spring; tar: tarsi; tex-1: primary tibial extensor; tex-2: secondary tibial extensor; tfl: tibial flexor; tib: tibia; tli-1: primary tibial ligament; tli-2: secondary tibial ligament; tpl: Lever's triangular plate; tra: trachea; tro: trochanter.

Supplementary material 2 from: Ruan Y, Konstantinov AS, Shi G, Tao Y, Li Y, Johnson AJ, Luo X, Zhang X, Zhang M, Wu J, Li W, Ge S, Yang X (2020) The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg. ZooKeys 915: 87-105. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.915.38348

: Data type: multimedia

Supplementary material 3 from: Ruan Y, Konstantinov AS, Shi G, Tao Y, Li Y, Johnson AJ, Luo X, Zhang X, Zhang M, Wu J, Li W, Ge S, Yang X (2020) The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg. ZooKeys 915: 87-105. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.915.38348

: Data type: multimedia

Figure 6 from: Ruan Y, Konstantinov AS, Shi G, Tao Y, Li Y, Johnson AJ, Luo X, Zhang X, Zhang M, Wu J, Li W, Ge S, Yang X (2020) The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg. ZooKeys 915: 87-105. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.915.38348

Figure 6 Bionic design of a jumping limb inspired by the flea beetle leg. A preparation position for jumping B building up elastic strain energy C triggering the jump D acceleration. The required energy for a jump is provided by two 'motors' operating simultaneously and generating the forces F1 and F2, respectively. At the beginning (inset B), F1 > F2, the 'tibia' rotates clockwise, but the 'trigger' blocks the process and leads to the stretching of 'volute spring'. Thus, the work generated by the 'motors' is stored in the 'volute spring'. At a certain stage (inset C), when the 'trigger' can no longer constrain the huge tension built up inside the femur, the 'latch element' dislodges suddenly from the 'trigger' and the huge amount of energy stored in the 'volute spring' is released. This leads to the explosive clockwise movement of the tibia. The leg thereby propels the robot into the air in an explosive manner. The leg can be switched to regular walking mode as required by operating only one 'motor' (one to flex the leg and the another to extend it) at a time.