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Figure 11. A in Phylogenetic interrelationships of living and extinct Tinamidae, volant palaeognathous birds from the New World

Figure 11. A, femur, craniomedial view, of Nothoprocta taczanowskii. B–D, femur, proximal end (cranial view): Megapodius freycinet (B); Nothoprocta ornata (C); and Tinamus tao (D). E, F, femur, distal end (medial view) of Rhynchotus maculicollis (E) and Tinamotis pentlandii (F). G–L, tibiotarsus, distal end (cranial view): Nothoprocta perdicaria (G); Rhynchotus maculicollis (H); Megapodius freycinet (I); Tinamotis penlandii (J); Tinamus tao (K); and Eudromia elegans (L). M, N, tibiotarsus, proximal end (cranial view) of Tinamus tao (M) and Tinamotis pentlandii (N). Abbreviations: cf, caput femoris; cl, condylus lateralis; cm, condylus medialis; cnc, crista cnemialis cranialis; cnl, crista cnemialis lateralis; ct, crista trochanteris; ft, fossa trochanteris; ps, pons supratendineus; se, sulcus extensorius; si, incisura intercondylaris; su, sulcus intercondylaris; tf, trochanter femoris. The numbers denote characters and character states as listed in Appendix 2. Figures are not drawn to scale.

Figure 8. A–H in Phylogenetic interrelationships of living and extinct Tinamidae, volant palaeognathous birds from the New World

Figure 8. A–H, sternum, ventral view, proximal end: Eudromia elegans (A); Nothocercus julius (B); Nothura maculosa (C); Nothoprocta cinerascens (D); Crypturellus erythropus (E); Taoniscus nanus (F); Tinamotis pentlandii (G); and Tinamus major (H). I, J, clavicula of Nothoprocta pentlandii (caudal view; I) and Crypturellus brevirostris (cranial view; J). K, L, scapula (medial view) of Nothoprocta pentlandii (K) and Tinamus major (L). Abbreviations: a, acromion; c, carina sterni; cl, crista lateralis carinae; es, extremitas sternalis claviculae; fa, facies articularis acrocoracoidea; fh, facies articularis humeralis; fn, foramen pneumaticum; ic, incisura intercostalis; il, incisura lateralis; pa, processus acromialis; pc, processus craniolateralis; sa, sulcus articularis coracoideus; sc, sulcus carinae; si, spina interna; tl, trabecula lateralis. The numbers denote characters and character states as listed in Appendix 2. Figures are not drawn to scale.

Figure 3. A–D in Phylogenetic interrelationships of living and extinct Tinamidae, volant palaeognathous birds from the New World

Figure 3. A–D, skulls in dorsal view: Crypturellus undulatus (A); Nothoprocta ornata (B); Eudromia formosa (C); and Nothura maculosa (D). E–H, skulls in occipital view: Crypturellus cinnamomeus (E); Taoniscus nanus (F); Nothoprocta taczanowskii (G); and Rhynchotus maculicollis (H). Abbreviations: cns, crista nuchalis sagittalis; cnt, crista nuchalis transversa; co, condylus occipitalis; en, external nares; fm, foramen magnum; fn, fossa glandulare nasalis; fnh, foramen n. hypoglossi; fnv, foramen n. vagi; foe, foramen v. occipitalis externa; fof, foramen n. ophthalmici; j, os jugale; la, os lacrimale; os, ossicula supraorbitales; p, pila supranasalis; pc, prominentia cerebellaris; po, processus postorbitalis; pp, processus paroccipitalis; ppm, processus parasphenoidalis medialis; pz, processus zygomaticus; rm, rostrum maxillare; sfp, sutura frontoparietalis; soe, sulcus v. occipitalis externa. The numbers denote characters and character states as listed in Appendix 2. Figures are not drawn to scale.

Figure 1 in Phylogenetic interrelationships of living and extinct Tinamidae, volant palaeognathous birds from the New World

Figure 1. Reduced strict consensus of the phylogenetic analysis of fossils and living tinamous under implied weight. Differences between topologies under equal versus implied weights analyses are marked with an ' '. Alternative positions of the fossils excluded from the strict consensus a posteriori are indicated above branches (A, MACN-SC-H; B, MACN-SC-T; C, Nothura sp.; D, Crypturellus reai). Support values of the phylogenetic analysis of extant species and analysis including fossils, respectively, are below branches.

Figure 5 in Phylogenetic interrelationships of living and extinct Tinamidae, volant palaeognathous birds from the New World

Figure 5. Skulls in ventral view: Tinamotis pentlandii (A); Crypturellus cinnamomeus (B); Nothura minor (C); Eudromia formosa (D); Nothoprocta perdicaria (E); and Rhynchotus maculicollis (F). Abbreviations: cm, condylus medialis; fch, fossa choanalis; fnh, foramen n. hypoglossi; fnv, foramen n. vagi; foe, foramen v. occipitalis externa; fof, foramen n. ophthalmici, jm, jugamentum maxillopalatinum; lch, pars choanalis (os palatinum); lp, lamina parasphenoidale; occ, ostium canalis carotici; pb, processus basipterygoideus; pc, processus caudomedialis; pmp, processsus maxillaris (os palatinum); ppm, processus maxillopalatinus (os maxillare); pp, processus paroccipitalis; rm, rostrum maxillare; rp, rostrum parasphenoidalis; ta, tuba auditiva. The numbers denote characters and character states as listed in Appendix 2. Figures are not drawn to scale.

Figure 12. A–D in Phylogenetic interrelationships of living and extinct Tinamidae, volant palaeognathous birds from the New World

Figure 12. A–D, tarsometatarsus, plantar view: Tinamotis pentlandii (A); Apteryx australis (B); Nothocercus bonapartei (C); and Crypturellus erythopus (D). E–H, tarsometatarsus, proximal view: Megapodius freycinet (E); Tinamotis pentlandii (F); Crypturellus soui (G); and Eudromia elegans (H). I–L, tarsometatarsus, distal end (dorsal view): Tinamotis pentlandii (I); Rhynchotus rufescens (J); Eudromia elegans (K); and Megapodius freycinet (L). Abbreviations: ci, crista intermedia hypotarsi; cl, crista lateralis hypotarsi; cm, crista medialis hypotarsi; fp, foramen vasculare proximale; fd, foramen vasculare distale; fm, fossa metatarsi I; fv, foramen vasculare distale; il, incisura intertrochlearis lateralis; II, trochlea metatarsi II; III, trochlea metatarsi III; IV, trochlea metatarsi IV; la, cotyla lateralis; me, cotyla medialis. The numbers denote characters and character states as listed in Appendix 2. Figures are not drawn to scale.

Figure 10. A–F in Phylogenetic interrelationships of living and extinct Tinamidae, volant palaeognathous birds from the New World

Figure 10. A–F, pelvis, lateral view: Crypturellus cinnamomeus (A); Megapodius freycinet (B); Tinamus solitarius (C); Nothocercus bonapartei (D); Nothoprocta perdicaria (E); and Nothoprocta taczanowskii (F). G–I, pelvis, dorsal view: Tinamus solitarius (G); Tinamotis pentlandi (H); and Nothura darwinii (I). J–L, pelvis, ventral view: Nothura darwinii (J); Crypturellus cinnamomeus (K); and Tinamus solitarius (L). Abbreviations: ac, foramen acetabuli; at, antitrochanter; c, crista for attachment of ilioischiatic membrane; cd, crista dorsolateralis ilii; cs, crista spinosa synsacri; cv, corpus vertebrae; f, fenestra ischiopubica; fc, fovea costalis; fe, foramen ilioischiadicum; fi, foramina intertransversaria; fn, fenestra intertransversaria; is, ischium; pc, processus costalis; pr, ala praeacetabularis ilii; po, ala postacetabularis ilii; pt, processus transversus; pu, pubis; si, sutura iliosynsacralis; sy, synsacrum; tb, tuberculum praeacetabulare; va, vertebra acetabularis. The numbers denote characters and character states as listed in Appendix 2. Figures are not drawn to scale.

Figure 6. A–E in Phylogenetic interrelationships of living and extinct Tinamidae, volant palaeognathous birds from the New World

Figure 6. A–E, mandible, caudal end (dorsal view): Tinamus major (A); Crypturellus cinnamomeus (B); Eudromia formosa (C); Rhynchotus maculicollis (D); and Nothoprocta ornata (E). F–K, quadrate, medial view: Nothocercus nigrocapillus (F); Tinamus major (G); Nothura darwinii (H); Eudromia elgans (I); Nothoprocta taczanowskii (J); and Nothoprocta perdicaria (K). Abbreviations: cc, condylus caudalis; ccl, cotylae caudalis et lateralis; cm, condylus medialis; cp, condylus pterygoideus; cr, crest from prominentia submeatica (Elzanowski, 1987); fap facies articularis parasphenoidalis; fn, foramen pneumaticum; ot, processus oticus; pm, processus medialis mandibularis; po, processus orbitalis; pr, processus retroarticularis; ps, prominentia submeatica (Elzanowski, 1987). The numbers denote characters and character states as listed in Appendix 2. Figures are not drawn to scale.

Figure 7. A, B, E, F in Phylogenetic interrelationships of living and extinct Tinamidae, volant palaeognathous birds from the New World

Figure 7. A, B, E, F, axis, left lateral side: Rhynchotus maculicollis (A); Eudromia elegans (B); Nothoprocta pentlandii (E); and Tinamotis pentlandii (articulated with atlas, F). C, D, G, H, cervical vertebra 3, left lateral view: Rhynchotus maculicollis (C); Tinamotis pentlandii (D); Eudromia elegans (G); Nothoprocta pentlandii (H). I–K, notarium (lateral view): Nothocercus bonapartei (I); Tinamus solitarius (J); and Nothoprocta taczanowskii (K). Abbreviations: a, atlas; ca, corpus axis; cn, corpus notarii; cr, crista spinosa notarii; cv, corpus vertebrae; d, dens; ec, eminentia costolateralis; fa, facies articularis costalis fc, facies articularis caudalis; fe, fenestra intercristalis; fi, fenestra intertransversaria; fn, foramen pneumaticum; ic, incisura caudalis; lt, lamina transversa notarii; p, processus costalis; pc, processus articularis caudalis; ps, processus spinosus; pv, processus ventralis; zca, zygapophysis caudalis; zcr, zygapophysis cranialis. The numbers denote characters and character states as listed in Appendix 2. Figures are not drawn to scale.

Figure 4 in Phylogenetic interrelationships of living and extinct Tinamidae, volant palaeognathous birds from the New World

Figure 4. Skulls in lateral view: Tinamotis pentlandii (A); Cypturellus soui (B); Nothoprocta ornata (C); Tinamus major (D); Nothura maculosa (E); and Rhynchotus maculicollis (F). Abbreviations: e, os ectethmoidale; en, external nares; fi, fonticuli interorbitales; fdl, foramen ductus lacrimalis; fno, foramen n. olfactorii; fo, fonticuli orbitocraniales; fol, foramen orbitonasale laterale; ft, fossa temporalis; ila, incisura ductus lacrimalis; j, os jugale; la, os lacrimale; me, os mesethmoidale; po, processus postorbitalis; pp, processus paroccipitalis; pr, processus orbitalis; ps, prominentia suprameatica; pz, processus zygomaticus; q, os quadratum; qj, os quadratojugale; rm, rostrum maxillare; si, septum interorbitale; so, sulcus n. olfactorii; sf, sutura frontoparietalis. The numbers denote characters and character states as listed in Appendix 2. Figures are not drawn to scale.

Figure 3 in New morphological evidence supports congruent phylogenies and Gondwana vicariance for palaeognathous birds

Figure 3. Evolution of the avian palate, ventral view, based on the phylogeny in Figure 4A. Rhynchotus is used as a representative of tinamous and Anomalopteryx of moas. Phoebastria (Livezey & Zusi, 2006) (Neoaves), Anseranas (Murray & Vickers-Rich, 2004) (Galloanserae), Archaeopteryx (Elzanowski, 2001), and Aepyornis (Simonetta, 1960) are after published accounts. The reconstruction of Hesperornis has been extended from the accounts of Elzanowski (1991) and Gingerich (1976) by adding choana and vomer. The cranial base represents parasphenoid and basisphenoid, the caudal limit of the basisphenoid is approximate. The arrows indicate: in Archaeopteryx, the long axis of the palatine directed at the basal articulation (similar in Hesperornis, Struthio, and Aepyornis); in Rhea, the medial edge of the palatine is directed toward the midline (similar in Anomalopteryx, Dromaius, Casuarius, Phoebastria, and Anseranas); in Rhynchotus, medial deviation of the lateral edge of the palatine toward the midline (similar in Anomalopteryx, Dromaius, Phoebastria, and Anseranas).

Figure 6. Gondwana area cladogram and a in New morphological evidence supports congruent phylogenies and Gondwana vicariance for palaeognathous birds

Figure 6. Gondwana area cladogram and a fully resolved palaeognath phylogeny (based on Fig. 4A) mapped together and reconciled with TREEMAP (http://taxonomy.zoology.gla.ac.uk/rod/treemap.html). Circles indicate nodes on the palaeognath tree that occur prior to geographical separations.

Figure 5 in New morphological evidence supports congruent phylogenies and Gondwana vicariance for palaeognathous birds

Figure 5. Schematic representation of the palaeognath ancestor in undivided Gondwana at 152 million years ago (Mya) and its distribution across divisions of the continent at 66 Mya according to the phylogeny presented here, with approximate dates of separation indicated in white type. It is assumed, based on the shape of the phylogeny, that ancestors of the South American taxa were present on the South America-Antarctica-Australasia fragment of Gondwana, rather than being the direct result of separation from Africa. Fossil palaeognath remains in Antarctica are not well enough characterized to fit into this phylogeny (Tambussi et al., 1994) but are denoted with a question mark. Maps are modified from the Paleomap project (Scotese, 2001).

Figure 4. A, phylogeny inferred here from 47 in New morphological evidence supports congruent phylogenies and Gondwana vicariance for palaeognathous birds

Figure 4. A, phylogeny inferred here from 47 morphological characters (core character group), consensus tree from TNT [four most parsimonious trees (MPTs) with explicit enumeration] and PAUP* (12 MPTs with branch-andbound), with dates based on Gondwana separations (Scotese, 2001). Best tree length 96 steps, consistency index = 0.7624, retention index = 0.7798, rescaled consistency index = 0.5945. B, 50% bootstrap majority-rule tree from PAUP*. Maximum trees 10 000; replications 1000; tree bisection-reconnection algorithm. C, phylogeny from complete character set in TNT (two MPTs). Bootstrap support values> 50% are indicated.

Figure 8 in Osteological comparison of casque ontogeny in palaeognathous and neognathous birds: insights for selecting modern analogues in the study of cranial ornaments from extinct archosaurs

Figure 8. Examples of modern casque analogues suitable for specific non-avian dinosaur ornamentation comparisons in the context of (top row) development, (middle row) structural composition, and (boưom row) homologous structures. Each skull shown in right lateral view. Grey regions depict non-ornamental elements, and orange-highlighted regions depict ornamental elements for each represented species (see main text for relevant osteology); neognathous birds surveyed from the literature collectively represented by hornbill illustration (lowest less).

Figure 7 in Osteological comparison of casque ontogeny in palaeognathous and neognathous birds: insights for selecting modern analogues in the study of cranial ornaments from extinct archosaurs

Figure 7. Illustrations of bony cranial anatomy among exemplar dinosaurs with skull ornamentation, i.e. Saurolophus osborni (paired nasals, prefrontals, and frontals; Bell 2011), Protoceratops andrewsi (paired parietals and squamosals; Dodson 1976), Stegoceras validum (paired frontals and parietals; Schoư et al. 2011), Citipati osmolskae (paired premaxillae, nasals, and frontals; Clark et al. 2002), Carnotaurus sastrei (paired frontals; Paulina Carabajal 2011), Monolophosaurus jiangi (paired premaxillae, nasals, lacrimals, prefrontals, and frontals; Brusaưe et al. 2010), Numida meleagris (paired frontals), Macrocephalon maleo (paired frontals and parietals); Casuarius casuarius (mesethmoid, median casque element, paired nasals, paired lacrimals, and paired frontals; Green and Gignac 2021). Each skull shown in right lateral (top) and dorsal (boưom) views. Grey regions depict non-ornamental elements and orange-highlighted regions depict ornamental elements for each represented species.

Figure 6 in Osteological comparison of casque ontogeny in palaeognathous and neognathous birds: insights for selecting modern analogues in the study of cranial ornaments from extinct archosaurs

Figure 6. Three-dimensional renderings from micro-computed tomography data of a developmental series of Casuarius casuarius: A, TLG C025; B, TLG C037; C, TLG C031; D, AMNH SKEL 963; E, AMNH SKEL 962 (see Table 1). Skulls are shown in (top) less lateral and (boưom) dorsal views. Casque elements specific to Casuarius casuarius are indicated by colored cells [dark red (X) = element not participating at specified age; dark green (✓) = element participating at specified age] in the table, and grey cells indicate bones that do not contribute to bones in the species represented in this figure, but do contribute to others in the study. Dashed line divides specimens without (less) and with (right) casques developmentally present.

Figure 5 in Osteological comparison of casque ontogeny in palaeognathous and neognathous birds: insights for selecting modern analogues in the study of cranial ornaments from extinct archosaurs

Figure 5. Three-dimensional renderings from micro-computed tomography data of a developmental series of Macrocephalon maleo: A, UAZ MM005; B, UAZ MM003; C, UAZ MM004; D, UAZ MM002; E, UAZ MM006 (see Table 1). Skulls are shown in (top) less lateral and (boưom) dorsal views. Casque elements specific to Ma. maleo are indicated by colored cells [dark red (X) = element not participating at specified age; dark green (✓) = element participating at specified age] in the table, and grey cells indicate bones that do not contribute to bones in the species represented in this figure, but do contribute to others in the study. Dashed line divides specimens without (less) and with (right) casques developmentally present.

Figure 3 in Osteological comparison of casque ontogeny in palaeognathous and neognathous birds: insights for selecting modern analogues in the study of cranial ornaments from extinct archosaurs

Figure 3. Three-dimensional renderings from micro-computed tomography data of immature (A) Numida meleagris (TLG NM002), (B) Macrocephalon maleo (UAZ MM003), and (C) Casuarius casuarius (TLG C004). (Immature specimens are figured to emphasize clearer suture lines.) Broad cranial casque paưerns divided into geminal (sampled neognaths; N. meleagris and Ma. maleo) and disunited (sampled palaeognath; Casuarius casuarius). Skulls are shown in (top) lateral and (boưom) dorsal views with elements that will contribute to the fully matured adult casque false coloured (maroon = nasals; green = median casque element; blue = mesethmoid; orange = lacrimals; purple = frontals; yellow = parietals).

Figure 2 in Osteological comparison of casque ontogeny in palaeognathous and neognathous birds: insights for selecting modern analogues in the study of cranial ornaments from extinct archosaurs

Figure 2. Three-dimensional renderings from micro-computed tomography data of adult neognaths: A, Gallus gallus (PMG GG001); B, Numida meleagris (TLG NM007); C, Macrocephalon maleo (UAZ MM006); along with palaeognaths: D, Dromaius novaehollandiae (TLG E167); E, Casuarius casuarius (AMNH SKEL 962). In order to determine the cranial bones contributing to casques of ornamented taxa, the cranial osteology of non-casqued neognathous and palaeognathous relatives was used for comparison; (A) G. gallus and (D) D. novaehollandiae, respectively. Micro-computed tomography image data of the two non-casqued taxa were collected via a 2010 GE phoenix v|tome|x s240 high-resolution microfocus computed tomography system (μ-CT) housed in the Microscopy and Imaging Facility of the AMNH and a 2018 Nikon XT H 225 ST μ-CT system housed at the Micro-CT Imaging Consortium for Research and Outreach. Scanning parameters were 110–121 kV, 130–457 μA, ranging from 84.52–101.94 μm, 200–267 ms exposures with isometric voxel size at resolutions, W target, and none or a 0.125 mm filter.